Carthage (Tunisia): location on the map, photos, ancient history, excursions and tourist reviews. Carthage - history of the ancient state briefly Carthage what country

Today we will talk about the once powerful and richest city - Carthage. Nowadays, only picturesque ruins remain from it. Today Carthage is also a revered city; for example, the residence of the President of Tunisia is located here. However, only memories remain of its former greatness. Today, a photo of Carthage in Tunisia is available in all tourist brochures of this country. Therefore, we invite you to take a closer look at this ancient city, its history, culture and location.

Carthage (Tunisia): history

According to legend, this city was founded by the Tyrian princess Elissa, who was forced to flee her native place after a palace coup. This happened in 814 BC. Elissa and her supporters sailed across the sea for a long time until they reached the African shores, where they landed on land in the Gulf of Tunisia. The local residents were very happy to see the strangers, who brought with them many amazing goods. The fugitive queen wanted to buy a plot of land equal in area to the size of an oxhide. The local leader was very surprised at this proposal and made fun of Elissa for a long time. He was sure that all her people would never be able to fit into such a small space, but still agreed to the deal. The next night, Elissa ordered the ox skin to be cut into thin strips and surrounded with them over a fairly large area of ​​land, thus marking her new possessions. This is how the city of Carthage in Tunisia was founded. It is no coincidence that the citadel built in its center is called Birsa, which means “skin.”

By the 3rd century BC, Carthage (Tunisia) had become the largest state in the western Mediterranean. Its geographical position made it possible to control all ships passing by. The Carthaginians were very businesslike, resourceful and warlike. They surrounded themselves with a high fortress wall, and along with the merchant fleet, they created their own military fleet, numbering more than two hundred ships. Thus, Carthage turned out to be impregnable both from land and sea.

Carthage was not ruled by a senate, where the best people of their time were elected, as in Rome. Here all decisions were made by the plebs, that is, the people. However, some scholars are confident that in fact in Carthage everything was run by the oligarchy (a group of the richest citizens). Be that as it may, along with Rome, this city was the most cultural and developed at that time.

The Carthaginians actively sailed to other countries and subjugated a number of lands in Southern Spain, North Africa, Sicily, Sardinia and Corsica. At first they were on good terms with Rome. Both states supported each other in military operations. However, tensions soon arose between them over the ownership of Sicily, as a result of which the First Punic War began in 264 BC. Military operations proceeded with varying degrees of success. However, in the end the Carthaginians were defeated. However, they were a tenacious people and were able to recover. This was followed by two more, which ultimately ended in complete victory for the Romans. This is how the call of a Roman statesman named Marcus Porcius Cato came true, who ended each of his speeches with the phrase that later became popular: “Carthage must be destroyed!” The wars of the Roman Empire destroyed the city of half a million. The surviving inhabitants were sold into slavery, and the ruins of Carthage were sprinkled with salt so that no one would have the desire to settle here. However, after some time, the Romans regretted the complete destruction of the city, because they could only get by with the liquidation of its army. Eventually they began to rebuild and repopulate Carthage. After some time, the city became the main center of Africa.

In the 2nd century AD, the Carthaginians converted to Christianity. In the 6th century, along with the collapse of the Roman Empire, this once majestic city also fell into decay. Just a hundred years later it was captured by the Arabs. The new rulers of Carthage used the remains of local structures to build a new city - Tunisia. Today Carthage is a suburb of Tunis. And due to its greatest historical value, it was included in the UNESCO World Heritage List.

Carthage (Tunisia): description and geographical location

So, today this city is one of the main ones. Few tourists who find themselves in this region deprive themselves of the opportunity to touch the ancient history of once great empires. Carthage is not difficult to find on a map of Tunisia. It is located in the northern part of this state on the shores of the Gulf of Tunisia, which is part of the Mediterranean Sea.

Carthage Hotels

The number of rooms in this locality can be called modest. This is due to the fact that Carthage is a unique place; there is no possibility of building hotels here. The only option for travelers who want to definitely stay here is the five-star Villa Didon hotel with 20 rooms. If you are looking for a more budget option, then it makes sense to choose a hotel in the city of Tunis or Gammarth.

Excursions

One of the must-see places in Carthage is the Baths of Antonine. In size they were second only to their Roman counterpart. Today, little remains of its former grandeur, but you can appreciate the scale of the construction by looking at the model erected here. As a rule, no excursion to Carthage (Tunisia) is complete without a visit to Tophet, which is an open-air burial altar. Here the Phoenicians sacrificed their firstborns in order to appease the gods. In addition, it is worth looking at the Roman amphitheater, which accommodated 36 thousand spectators, the remains of a huge aqueduct, as well as the Maalga water tanks.

Shopping

In addition to the standard souvenirs for any country in the form of magnets, key rings, postcards, etc., merchants here offer tourists items that supposedly have historical value: coins, mosaics, pieces of steles and columns, etc. You should not fall for this fishing rod You can buy such things only as a souvenir, and do not hesitate to bargain.

Cafes and restaurants

On both sides of Habib Bourguiba Avenue, which runs along the coastline, there are a whole host of cafes where you can quench your thirst with a cool juice or have lunch. If you want to pamper both your stomach and your eyes, then visit the restaurant at the five-star Villa Dido hotel, which offers stunning views of the whole of Carthage.

The content of the article

CARTHAGE, an ancient city (near modern Tunisia) and a state that existed in the 7th–2nd centuries. BC. in the western Mediterranean. Carthage (meaning "new city" in Phoenician) was founded by people from Phoenician Tire (traditional founding date 814 BC, actually founded somewhat later, perhaps c. 750 BC). The Romans called it Carthago, the Greeks called it Carchedon.

According to legend, Carthage was founded by Queen Elissa (Dido), who fled from Tire after her brother Pygmalion, the king of Tire, killed her husband Sychaeus in order to take possession of his wealth. Throughout the history of Carthage, the city's inhabitants were renowned for their business acumen. According to the legend of the city's founding, Dido, who was allowed to occupy as much land as an ox's hide would cover, took possession of a large area by cutting the hide into narrow strips. That is why the citadel erected at this place was called Birsa (which means “skin”).

Carthage was not the oldest of the Phoenician colonies. Long before him, Utica was founded somewhat to the north (traditional date - ca. 1100 BC). Probably around the same time, Hadrumet and Leptis, located on the east coast of Tunisia to the south, Hippo on the north coast and Lyx on the Atlantic coast of modern Morocco were founded.

Long before the founding of the Phoenician colonies, ships from Egypt, Mycenaean Greece and Crete plied the Mediterranean Sea. The political and military failures of these powers starting around 1200 BC. provided the Phoenicians with freedom of action in the Mediterranean Sea and a favorable opportunity to acquire skills in navigation and trade. From 1100 to 800 BC The Phoenicians virtually dominated the sea, where only rare Greek ships dared to go. The Phoenicians explored the lands in the west up to the Atlantic coast of Africa and Europe, which later came in handy for Carthage.

CITY AND POWER

Carthage owned fertile lands in the interior of the continent, it had an advantageous geographical position, which was conducive to trade, and also allowed it to control the waters between Africa and Sicily, preventing foreign ships from sailing further to the west.

Compared to many famous cities of antiquity, Punic (from Latin punicus or poenicus - Phoenician) Carthage is not so rich in finds, since in 146 BC. The Romans methodically destroyed the city, and intensive construction took place in Roman Carthage, founded on the same site in 44 BC. Based on the scanty evidence of ancient authors and their often unclear topographical indications, we know that the city of Carthage was surrounded by powerful walls with a length of approx. 30 km. Its population is unknown. The citadel was very strongly fortified. The city had a market square, a council building, a court and temples. The quarter, called Megara, had many vegetable gardens, orchards and winding canals. The ships entered the trading harbor through a narrow passage. For loading and unloading, up to 220 ships could be pulled ashore at the same time (ancient ships should have been kept on land if possible). Behind the trading harbor there was a military harbor and an arsenal.

System of government.

In terms of its government structure, Carthage was an oligarchy. Despite the fact that in their homeland, in Phenicia, power belonged to the kings and the founder of Carthage, according to legend, was Queen Dido, we know almost nothing about royal power here. Ancient authors, who mostly admired the structure of Carthage, compared it with the political system of Sparta and Rome. Power here belonged to the Senate, which was in charge of finances, foreign policy, declarations of war and peace, and also carried out the general conduct of the war. Executive power was vested in two elected magistrates, the suffetes (the Romans called them sufetes, which is the same position as the "shofetim", i.e. judges, in the Old Testament). Obviously, these were senators, and their duties were exclusively civilian, not involving control over the army. Together with the army commanders, they were elected by the people's assembly. The same positions were established in cities under the rule of Carthage. Although many aristocrats owned vast agricultural lands, land ownership was not the only basis for achieving high social status. Trade was considered a completely respectable occupation, and wealth obtained in this way was treated with respect. Nevertheless, some aristocrats from time to time actively opposed the dominance of merchants, such as Hanno the Great in the 3rd century. BC.

Regions and cities.

The agricultural areas in mainland Africa - the area inhabited by the Carthaginians themselves - roughly correspond to the territory of modern Tunisia, although other lands also fell under the city’s rule. When ancient authors speak of the numerous cities that were in the possession of Carthage, they undoubtedly mean ordinary villages. However, there were also real Phoenician colonies here - Utica, Leptis, Hadrumet, etc. Information about Carthage's relations with these cities and some Phoenician settlements in Africa or elsewhere is scarce. The cities of the Tunisian coast showed independence in their politics only in 149 BC, when it became obvious that Rome intended to destroy Carthage. Some of them then submitted to Rome. In general, Carthage was able (probably after 500 BC) to choose a political line, which was joined by the rest of the Phoenician cities both in Africa and on the other side of the Mediterranean.

The Carthaginian power was very extensive. In Africa, its easternmost city was more than 300 km east of Eia (modern Tripoli). Between it and the Atlantic Ocean the ruins of a number of ancient Phoenician and Carthaginian cities were discovered. Around 500 BC or a little later, the navigator Hanno led an expedition that founded several colonies on the Atlantic coast of Africa. He ventured far to the south and left a description of gorillas, tom-toms and other African sights rarely mentioned by ancient authors.

Colonies and trading posts were for the most part located approximately one day's sailing distance from each other. Usually they were located on islands near the coast, on capes, at the mouths of rivers, or in those places on the mainland of the country from where it was easy to reach the sea. For example, Leptis, located near modern Tripoli, in the Roman era served as the final coastal point of the great caravan route from the interior, from where merchants brought slaves and gold sand. This trade probably began early in Carthage's history.

The power included Malta and two neighboring islands. Carthage fought against the Sicilian Greeks for centuries, under its rule were Lilybaeum and other reliably fortified ports in the west of Sicily, as well as, at various periods, other areas on the island (it so happened that almost all of Sicily was in its hands, except Syracuse). Gradually, Carthage established control over the fertile regions of Sardinia, while the inhabitants of the mountainous regions of the island remained unconquered. Foreign merchants were prohibited from entering the island. At the beginning of the 5th century. BC. The Carthaginians began to explore Corsica. Carthaginian colonies and trading settlements also existed on the southern coast of Spain, while the Greeks gained a foothold on the eastern coast. Since arriving here in 237 BC. Hamilcar Barca and before Hannibal's campaign in Italy, great successes were achieved in subjugating the interior regions of Spain. Apparently, when creating its power scattered across different territories, Carthage did not set any goals other than establishing control over them in order to obtain the maximum possible profit.

CARTAGE CIVILIZATION

Agriculture.

The Carthaginians were skilled farmers. The most important grain crops were wheat and barley. Some grain was probably delivered from Sicily and Sardinia. Average quality wine was produced for sale. Fragments of ceramic containers found during archaeological excavations in Carthage indicate that the Carthaginians imported higher quality wines from Greece or the island of Rhodes. The Carthaginians were famous for their excessive addiction to wine; even special laws against drunkenness were adopted, for example, prohibiting the consumption of wine by soldiers. In North Africa, olive oil was produced in large quantities, although of low quality. Figs, pomegranates, almonds, date palms grew here, and ancient authors mention vegetables such as cabbage, peas and artichokes. Horses, mules, cows, sheep and goats were bred in Carthage. The Numidians, who lived to the west, in the territory of modern Algeria, preferred thoroughbred horses and were famous as riders. Apparently, the Carthaginians, who had strong trade ties with the Numidians, bought horses from them. Later, the gourmets of imperial Rome highly valued poultry from Africa.

Unlike Republican Rome, in Carthage small farmers did not form the backbone of society. Most of Carthage's African possessions were divided among wealthy Carthaginians, in whose large estates farming was carried out on a scientific basis. A certain Mago, who probably lived in the 3rd century. BC, wrote a guide to farming. After the fall of Carthage, the Roman Senate, wanting to attract wealthy people to restore production in some of its lands, ordered the translation of this manual into Latin. Passages from the work cited in Roman sources indicate that Mago used Greek agricultural manuals, but tried to adapt them to local conditions. He wrote about large farms and touched on all aspects of agricultural production. Probably local Berbers, and sometimes groups of slaves under the leadership of overseers, worked as tenants or sharecroppers. The emphasis was mainly on cash crops, vegetable oil and wine, but the nature of the area inevitably suggested specialization: the hillier areas were devoted to orchards, vineyards or pastures. There were also medium-sized peasant farms.

Craft.

Carthaginian artisans specialized in the production of cheap products, mostly reproducing Egyptian, Phoenician and Greek designs and intended for sale in the western Mediterranean, where Carthage captured all markets. The production of luxury goods, such as the vibrant purple dye commonly known as Tyrian purple, dates back to the later period of Roman rule in North Africa, but may be thought to have existed before the fall of Carthage. Purple slug, a sea snail containing this dye, was best collected in the fall and winter—the unseaworthy seasons. Permanent settlements were founded in Morocco and on the island of Djerba, in the best places for obtaining murex.

In accordance with Eastern traditions, the state was a slave owner, using slave labor in arsenals, shipyards or construction. Archaeologists have not found evidence that would indicate the presence of large private craft enterprises, whose products would be distributed in the Western market closed to outsiders, while many small workshops have been noted. It is often very difficult to distinguish among finds Carthaginian products from objects imported from Phenicia or Greece. Craftsmen were successful in reproducing simple items, and the Carthaginians do not seem to have been too keen on making anything other than copies.

Some Punic craftsmen were very skilled, especially in carpentry and metalwork. A Carthaginian carpenter could use cedar wood for work, the properties of which were known from ancient times by the craftsmen of Ancient Phenicia who worked with Lebanese cedar. Due to the constant need for ships, both carpenters and metal workers were invariably distinguished by a high level of skill. There is evidence of their skill in working iron and bronze. The amount of jewelry found during excavations is small, but it seems that these people were not inclined to place expensive objects in tombs to please the souls of the dead.

The largest of the handicraft industries, apparently, was the manufacture of ceramic products. The remains of workshops and pottery kilns filled with products intended for firing were discovered. Each Punic settlement in Africa produced pottery, which is found throughout the areas that were part of Carthage's sphere - Malta, Sicily, Sardinia and Spain. Carthaginian pottery is also found from time to time on the coast of France and Northern Italy - where the Greeks from Massalia (modern Marseille) occupied a dominant position in trade and where the Carthaginians were probably still allowed to trade.

Archaeological finds paint a picture of a stable production of simple pottery not only in Carthage itself, but also in many other Punic cities. These are bowls, vases, dishes, goblets, pot-bellied jugs for various purposes, called amphorae, water jugs and lamps. Research shows that their production existed from ancient times until the destruction of Carthage in 146 BC. Early products for the most part reproduced Phoenician designs, which in turn were often copies of Egyptian ones. It seems that in the 4th and 3rd centuries. BC. The Carthaginians especially valued Greek products, which was evident in the imitation of Greek pottery and sculpture and the presence of large quantities of Greek products from this period in materials from excavations in Carthage.

Trade policy.

The Carthaginians were especially successful in trade. Carthage can well be called a trading state, since its policies were largely guided by commercial considerations. Many of its colonies and trading settlements were undoubtedly founded for the purpose of expanding trade. It is known about some expeditions undertaken by the Carthaginian rulers, the reason for which was also the desire for wider trade relations. In a treaty concluded by Carthage in 508 BC. with the Roman Republic, which had just emerged after the expulsion of the Etruscan kings from Rome, it was stipulated that Roman ships could not sail into the western part of the sea, but they could use the harbor of Carthage. In the event of a forced landing elsewhere in Punic territory, they asked for official protection from the authorities and, after repairing the ship and replenishing food supplies, immediately set sail. Carthage agreed to recognize Rome's borders and respect its people as well as its allies.

The Carthaginians entered into agreements and, if necessary, made concessions. They also resorted to force to prevent rivals from entering the waters of the western Mediterranean, which they considered as their patrimony, with the exception of the coast of Gaul and the adjacent coasts of Spain and Italy. They also fought against piracy. The authorities maintained the complex structures of Carthage's trading harbor in good repair, as well as its military harbor, which was apparently open to foreign ships, but few sailors entered it.

It is striking that such a trading state as Carthage did not show due attention to coinage. Apparently, there was no own coin here until the 4th century. BC, when silver coins were issued which, if the surviving examples are considered typical, varied considerably in weight and quality. Perhaps the Carthaginians preferred to use the reliable silver coins of Athens and other states, and most transactions were carried out through direct barter.

Goods and trade routes.

Specific data on Carthage's trade items is surprisingly scant, although evidence of its trading interests is quite numerous. Typical of such evidence is Herodotus' story about how trade took place on the west coast of Africa. The Carthaginians landed at a certain place and laid out goods, after which they retired to their ships. Then local residents appeared and placed a certain amount of gold next to the goods. If there was enough of it, the Carthaginians took the gold and sailed away. Otherwise, they left it untouched and returned to the ships, and the natives brought more gold. What kind of goods these were is not mentioned in the story.

Apparently, the Carthaginians brought simple pottery for sale or exchange to those western regions where they had a monopoly, and also traded in amulets, jewelry, simple metal utensils and simple glassware. Some of them were produced in Carthage, some in the Punic colonies. According to some evidence, Punic traders offered wine, women and clothing to the natives of the Balearic Islands in exchange for slaves.

It can be assumed that they were engaged in extensive purchases of goods in other craft centers - Egypt, Phenicia, Greece, Southern Italy - and transported them to those areas where they enjoyed a monopoly. Punic traders were famous in the harbors of these craft centers. Finds of non-Carthaginian items during archaeological excavations of western settlements suggest that they were brought there on Punic ships.

Some references in Roman literature indicate that the Carthaginians brought various valuable goods to Italy, where ivory from Africa was highly valued. During the empire, huge quantities of wild animals were brought from Roman North Africa for games. Figs and honey are also mentioned.

It is believed that Carthaginian ships sailed the Atlantic Ocean to obtain tin from Cornwall. The Carthaginians themselves produced bronze and may have shipped some tin to other places where it was needed for similar production. Through their colonies in Spain, they sought to obtain silver and lead, which could be exchanged for the goods they brought. The ropes for Punic warships were made from esparto grass, native to Spain and North Africa. An important trade item, due to its high price, was the purple dye from scarlet. In many areas, traders purchased wild animal skins and leather and found markets to sell them.

As in later times, caravans from the south must have arrived at the ports of Leptis and Aea, as well as Gigtis, which lay somewhat to the west. They carried ostrich feathers and eggs, popular in ancient times, which served as decorations or bowls. In Carthage, they were painted with fierce faces and used, as they say, as masks to scare away demons. The caravans also brought ivory and slaves. But the most important cargo was gold sand from the Gold Coast or Guinea.

The Carthaginians imported some of the best goods for their own use. Some of the pottery found in Carthage came from Greece or from Campania in southern Italy, where it was produced by visiting Greeks. The characteristic handles of Rhodian amphorae found during excavations in Carthage show that wine was brought here from Rhodes. Surprisingly, no high-quality Attic ceramics are found here.

Language, art and religion.

We know almost nothing about the culture of the Carthaginians. The only lengthy texts in their language that have come down to us are contained in the play of Plautus Punic, where one of the characters, Hanno, delivers a monologue, apparently in genuine Punic dialect, followed by a significant part of it in Latin. In addition, there are many replicas of the same Gannon scattered throughout the play, also translated into Latin. Unfortunately, the scribes who did not understand the text distorted it. In addition, the Carthaginian language is known only by geographical names, technical terms, proper names and individual words given by Greek and Latin authors. In interpreting these passages, the similarity of the Punic language to the Hebrew language is very helpful.

The Carthaginians did not have their own artistic traditions. Apparently, in everything that can be classified as art, these people limited themselves to copying other people's ideas and techniques. In ceramics, jewelry and sculpture, they were content with imitation, and sometimes they copied not the best examples. As far as literature is concerned, we have no evidence of them producing any other works than purely practical ones, such as Mago's manual on agriculture, and one or two smaller compilations in Greek. We are not aware of the presence in Carthage of anything that could be called “fine literature.”

Carthage had an official priesthood, temples and its own religious calendar. The main deities were Baal (Baal) - a Semitic god known from the Old Testament, and the goddess Tanit (Tinnit), the heavenly queen. Virgil in Aeneid called Juno a goddess who favored the Carthaginians, since he identified her with Tanit. The religion of the Carthaginians is characterized by human sacrifices, which were especially widely practiced during periods of disaster. The main thing in this religion is the belief in the effectiveness of cult practice for communicating with the invisible world. In light of this, it is especially surprising that in the 4th and 3rd centuries. BC. the Carthaginians actively joined the mystical Greek cult of Demeter and Persephone; in any case, the material traces of this cult are quite numerous.

RELATIONS WITH OTHER PEOPLES

The most ancient rivals of the Carthaginians were the Phoenician colonies in Africa, Utica and Hadrumet. It is unclear when and how they had to submit to Carthage: there is no written evidence of any wars.

Alliance with the Etruscans.

The Etruscans of northern Italy were both allies and trade rivals of Carthage. These enterprising sailors, traders and pirates dominated the 6th century. BC. over a large part of Italy. Their main area of ​​settlement was immediately north of Rome. They also owned Rome and the lands to the south - right up to the point where they came into conflict with the Greeks of southern Italy. Having concluded an alliance with the Etruscans, the Carthaginians in 535 BC. won a major naval victory over the Phocians - the Greeks who occupied Corsica.

The Etruscans occupied Corsica and held the island for about two generations. In 509 BC. the Romans expelled them from Rome and Latium. Soon after this, the Greeks of southern Italy, enlisting the support of the Sicilian Greeks, increased pressure on the Etruscans and in 474 BC. put an end to their power at sea, inflicting a crushing defeat on them near Qom in the Gulf of Naples. The Carthaginians moved to Corsica, already having a bridgehead in Sardinia.

The fight for Sicily.

Even before the major defeat of the Etruscans, Carthage had the opportunity to measure its strength with the Sicilian Greeks. The Punic cities in western Sicily, founded at least no later than Carthage, were forced to submit to him, like the cities of Africa. The rise of two powerful Greek tyrants, Gelon in Syracuse and Pheron in Acragantum, clearly foreshadowed to the Carthaginians that the Greeks would launch a powerful offensive against them to drive them out of Sicily, just as happened with the Etruscans in southern Italy. The Carthaginians accepted the challenge and for three years actively prepared to conquer all of eastern Sicily. They acted together with the Persians, who were preparing an invasion of Greece itself. According to later tradition (no doubt erroneous), the defeat of the Persians at Salamis and the equally decisive defeat of the Carthaginians in the land battle of Himera in Sicily occurred in 480 BC. in the same day. Having confirmed the worst fears of the Carthaginians, Feron and Gelon put up an irresistible force.

Much time passed before the Carthaginians again launched an attack on Sicily. After Syracuse successfully repelled an Athenian invasion (415–413 BC), utterly defeating them, it sought to subjugate other Greek cities in Sicily. Then these cities began to turn to Carthage for help, which was not slow to take advantage of this and sent a huge army to the island. The Carthaginians were close to capturing the entire eastern part of Sicily. At this moment, the famous Dionysius I came to power in Syracuse, who based the power of Syracuse on cruel tyranny and for forty years fought against the Carthaginians with varying success. At the end of hostilities in 367 BC. The Carthaginians again had to come to terms with the impossibility of establishing complete control over the island. The lawlessness and inhumanity committed by Dionysius were partly compensated by the assistance he provided to the Sicilian Greeks in their fight against Carthage. The persistent Carthaginians made another attempt to subjugate eastern Sicily during the tyranny of Dionysius the Younger, who succeeded his father. However, this again did not achieve its goal, and in 338 BC, after several years of fighting, which made it impossible to talk about the advantage of either side, peace was concluded.

There is an opinion that Alexander the Great saw his ultimate goal in establishing dominion over the West as well. After Alexander's return from the great campaign in India, shortly before his death, the Carthaginians, like other nations, sent an embassy to him, trying to find out his intentions. Perhaps Alexander's untimely death in 323 BC. saved Carthage from many troubles.

In 311 BC The Carthaginians made another attempt to occupy the eastern part of Sicily. A new tyrant, Agathocles, ruled in Syracuse. The Carthaginians had already besieged him in Syracuse and seemed to have the opportunity to capture this main stronghold of the Greeks, but Agathocles and his army sailed from the harbor and attacked the Carthaginian possessions in Africa, posing a threat to Carthage itself. From this moment until the death of Agathocles in 289 BC. The usual war continued with varying success.

In 278 BC The Greeks went on the offensive. The famous Greek commander Pyrrhus, king of Epirus, arrived in Italy to fight against the Romans on the side of the southern Italian Greeks. Having won two victories over the Romans with great damage to himself (“Pyrrhic victory”), he crossed over to Sicily. There he pushed back the Carthaginians and almost cleared the island of them, but in 276 BC. with his characteristic fatal inconstancy, he abandoned further struggle and returned to Italy, from where he was soon expelled by the Romans.

Wars with Rome.

The Carthaginians could hardly have foreseen that their city was destined to perish as a result of a series of military conflicts with Rome, known as the Punic Wars. The reason for the war was the episode with the Mamertines, Italian mercenaries who were in the service of Agathocles. In 288 BC part of them captured the Sicilian city of Messana (modern Messina), and when in 264 BC. Hieron II, the ruler of Syracuse, began to overcome them, they asked for help from Carthage and at the same time from Rome. For a variety of reasons, the Romans responded to the request and came into conflict with the Carthaginians.

The war lasted 24 years (264–241 BC). The Romans landed troops in Sicily and initially achieved some successes, but the army that landed in Africa under the command of Regulus was defeated near Carthage. After repeated failures at sea caused by storms, as well as a number of defeats on land (the Carthaginian army in Sicily was commanded by Hamilcar Barca), the Romans in 241 BC. won a naval battle off the Aegadian Islands, off the western coast of Sicily. The war brought enormous damage and losses to both sides, Carthage finally lost Sicily, and soon lost Sardinia and Corsica. In 240 BC a dangerous uprising of Carthaginian mercenaries dissatisfied with the delay of money broke out, which was suppressed only in 238 BC.

In 237 BC, just four years after the end of the first war, Hamilcar Barca went to Spain and began the conquest of the interior. To the Roman embassy, ​​who came with a question about his intentions, he replied that he was looking for a way to pay the indemnity to Rome as quickly as possible. The riches of Spain - flora and fauna, minerals, not to mention its inhabitants - could quickly compensate the Carthaginians for the loss of Sicily. However, conflict began again between the two powers, this time due to unrelenting pressure from Rome. In 218 BC Hannibal, the great Carthaginian commander, traveled overland from Spain through the Alps to Italy and defeated the Roman army, winning several brilliant victories, the most important of which took place in 216 BC. at the Battle of Cannae. Nevertheless, Rome did not ask for peace. On the contrary, he recruited new troops and, after several years of confrontation in Italy, transferred the fighting to North Africa, where he achieved victory at the Battle of Zama (202 BC).

Carthage lost Spain and finally lost its position as a state capable of challenging Rome. However, the Romans feared the revival of Carthage. They say that Cato the Elder ended each of his speeches in the Senate with the words “Delenda est Carthago” - “Carthage must be destroyed.” In 149 BC Rome's exorbitant demands forced the weakened but still wealthy North African state into a third war. After three years of heroic resistance, the city fell. The Romans razed it to the ground, sold the surviving inhabitants into slavery and sprinkled the soil with salt. However, five centuries later, Punic was still spoken in some rural areas of North Africa, and many of the people who lived there probably had Punic blood in their veins. Carthage was rebuilt in 44 BC. and turned into one of the major cities of the Roman Empire, but the Carthaginian state ceased to exist.

ROMAN CARTHAGE

Julius Caesar, who had a practical bent, ordered the founding of a new Carthage, since he considered it pointless to leave such an advantageous place in many respects unused. In 44 BC, 102 years after its destruction, the city began a new life. From the very beginning it prospered as the administrative center and port of an area with rich agricultural production. This period of Carthage's history lasted almost 750 years.

Carthage became the main city of the Roman provinces in North Africa and the third (after Rome and Alexandria) city in the empire. It served as the residence of the proconsul of the province of Africa, which, in the minds of the Romans, more or less coincided with the ancient Carthaginian territory. The administration of the imperial land holdings, which made up a significant part of the province, was also located here.

Many famous Romans are associated with Carthage and its surroundings. The writer and philosopher Apuleius studied in Carthage as a youth, and later achieved such fame there for his Greek and Latin speeches that statues were erected in his honor. A native of North Africa was Marcus Cornelius Fronto, tutor of Emperor Marcus Aurelius, as well as Emperor Septimius Severus.

The ancient Punic religion survived in Romanized form, and the goddess Tanit was worshiped as Juno the Celestial, and the image of Baal merged with Cronus (Saturn). However, it was North Africa that became the stronghold of the Christian faith, and Carthage gained prominence in the early history of Christianity and was the site of a number of important church councils. In the 3rd century. The Carthaginian bishop was Cyprian, and Tertullian spent most of his life here. The city was considered one of the largest centers of Latin learning in the empire; St. Augustine in his Confessions gives us several vivid sketches of the life of students who attended the rhetoric school of Carthage at the end of the 4th century.

However, Carthage remained only a major urban center and had no political significance. Do we hear stories about the public executions of Christians, do we read about Tertullian’s furious attacks on noble Carthaginian women who came to church in magnificent secular attire, or do we meet references to some outstanding personalities who found themselves in Carthage at important moments in history, above the level of a large provincial city he never rises again. For some time here was the capital of the Vandals (429–533 AD), who, like pirates once, set sail from the harbor that dominated the Mediterranean straits. This area was then conquered by the Byzantines, who held it until Carthage fell to the Arabs in 697.

Carthage was founded in 814 BC. e. colonists from the Phoenician city of Tire. After the fall of Phoenician influence in the Western Mediterranean, Carthage reassigned the former Phoenician colonies. By the 3rd century BC. e. it becomes the largest state in the western Mediterranean, subjugating Southern Spain, North Africa, Sicily, Sardinia, and Corsica. After a series of wars against Rome, it lost its conquests and was destroyed in 146 BC. e., its territory was turned into the province of Africa. Julius Caesar proposed to found a colony in its place (it was founded after his death). After the conquest of North Africa by the Byzantine emperor Justinian, Carthage was the capital of the Carthaginian Exarchate. It finally lost its name after being conquered by the Arabs.

Location

Carthage is located on a promontory with entrances to the sea in the north and south. The city's location made it a leader in Mediterranean maritime trade. All ships crossing the sea inevitably passed between Sicily and the coast of Tunisia.

Two large artificial harbors were dug within the city: one for the navy, capable of accommodating 220 warships, the other for commercial trade. On the isthmus that separated the harbors, a huge tower was built, surrounded by a wall.

The length of the massive city walls was 37 kilometers, and the height in some places reached 12 meters. Most of the walls were located on the shore, which made the city impregnable from the sea.

The city had a huge cemetery, places of worship, markets, a municipality, towers, and a theater. It was divided into four equal residential areas. Approximately in the middle of the city stood a high citadel called Birsa. It was one of the largest cities in Hellenistic times (according to some estimates, only Alexandria was larger), and was among the largest cities of antiquity.

State structure

Carthage was ruled by the aristocracy. The highest body was the council of elders, headed by 10 (later 30) people. The People's Assembly also formally played a significant role, but in fact it was rarely addressed. Around 450 BC. e. In order to create a counterbalance to the desire of some clans (especially the Mago clan) to gain full control over the council, a council of judges was created. It consisted of 104 people and was initially supposed to judge the remaining officials after the expiration of their terms of office, but subsequently concentrated all power in its hands. The executive (and highest judicial) power was exercised by two suffets; they, like the council of elders, were elected annually by open purchase of votes (most likely, there were other officials, but information about this has not been preserved). The Council of 104 was not elected, but was appointed by special commissions - pentarchy, which themselves were replenished on the basis of belonging to one or another aristocratic family. The Council of Elders also elected the commander-in-chief - for an indefinite period and with the broadest powers. The performance of the duties of officials was not paid; in addition, there was a qualification of nobility. The democratic opposition only strengthened during the Punic Wars and did not have time to play almost any role in history. The whole system was highly corrupt, but colossal government revenues allowed the country to develop quite successfully.

According to Polybius (i.e. from the point of view of the Romans), decisions in Carthage were made by the people (plebs), and in Rome - by the best people, that is, the Senate. And this despite the fact that, according to many historians, Carthage was ruled by an Oligarchy.

Religion

Although the Phoenicians lived scattered throughout the Western Mediterranean, they were united by common beliefs. The Carthaginians inherited the Canaanite religion from their Phoenician ancestors. Every year for centuries, Carthage sent envoys to Tire to perform a sacrifice there in the temple of Melqart. In Carthage, the main deities were the pair Baal Hammon, whose name means “fire-master,” and Tanit, identified with Astarte.

The most notorious feature of Carthage's religion was child sacrifice. According to Diodorus Siculus, in 310 BC. e., during the attack on the city, in order to pacify Baal Hammon, the Carthaginians sacrificed more than 200 children from noble families. The Encyclopedia of Religion states: “The sacrifice of an innocent child as a sacrifice of atonement was the greatest act of propitiation of the gods. Apparently, this act was intended to ensure the welfare of both the family and the community.”

In 1921, archaeologists discovered a site where several rows of urns were found containing the charred remains of both animals (they were sacrificed instead of people) and small children. The place was called Tophet. The burials were located under steles on which requests were written that accompanied the sacrifices. It is estimated that the site contains the remains of more than 20,000 children sacrificed in just 200 years. Today, some revisionists argue that the burial site was simply a cemetery for children who were stillborn or were not old enough to be buried in the necropolis. However, it cannot be said with complete confidence that people were not sacrificed in Carthage.

Social system

The entire population, according to its rights, was divided into several groups based on ethnicity. The Libyans were in the most difficult situation. The territory of Libya was divided into regions subordinate to the strategists, taxes were very high, and their collection was accompanied by all sorts of abuses. This led to frequent uprisings, which were brutally suppressed. Libyans were forcibly recruited into the army - the reliability of such units, of course, was very low. The Siculi - Sicilian Greeks - made up another part of the population; their rights in the field of political administration were limited by “Sidonian law” (its content is unknown). The Siculs, however, enjoyed free trade. People from the Phoenician cities annexed to Carthage enjoyed full civil rights, and the rest of the population (freedmen, settlers - in a word, not Phoenicians) enjoyed “Sidonian law” like the Siculs.

The Wealth of Carthage

Built on the foundation laid by the Phoenician ancestors, Carthage created its own trading network (it was mainly involved in the import of metals) and developed it to unprecedented proportions. Carthage maintained its monopoly on trade through a powerful fleet and mercenary troops.

Carthaginian merchants were constantly looking for new markets. Around 480 BC. e. The navigator Gimilkon landed in British Cornwall, rich in tin. And 30 years later, Hanno, who came from an influential Carthaginian family, led an expedition of 60 ships with 30,000 men and women. People were landed in different parts of the coast to found new colonies. It is possible that, having sailed through the Strait of Gibraltar and along the African coast, Hanno reached the Gulf of Guinea and even the shores of Cameroon.

Entrepreneurship and business acumen helped Carthage become, by all accounts, the richest city of the ancient world. “At the beginning of the 3rd century [BC. BC] thanks to technology, the fleet and trade... the city moved to the forefront,” says the book “Carthage”. The Greek historian Appian wrote about the Carthaginians: “Their power militarily became equal to the Hellenic, but in terms of wealth it was in second place after the Persian.”

Army

Carthage's army was mainly mercenary. The basis of the infantry were Spanish, African, Greek, and Gallic mercenaries; the Carthaginian aristocracy served in the “sacred detachment” - heavily armed cavalry. The mercenary cavalry consisted of Numidians, who were considered the most skilled warriors in antiquity, and Iberians. The Iberians were also considered good warriors - the Balearic slingers and caetrati (correlated with the Greek peltasts) formed the light infantry, the scutatii (armed with a spear, javelin and bronze shell) - the heavy, Spanish heavy cavalry (armed with swords) was also highly valued. The Celtiberian tribes used the weapons of the Gauls - long double-edged swords. An important role was also played by elephants, which were kept in numbers of about 300. The “technical” equipment of the army was also high (catapults, ballistas, etc.). In general, the composition of the Punic army was similar to the armies of the Hellenistic states. At the head of the army was the commander-in-chief, elected by the council of elders, but towards the end of the existence of the state, this election was also carried out by the army, which indicates monarchical tendencies.

Story

Carthage was founded by immigrants from the Phoenician city of Tire at the end of the 9th century BC. e. According to legend, the city was founded by the widow of a Phoenician king named Dido. She promised the local tribe to pay a precious stone for a piece of land limited by the skin of a bull, but on the condition that the choice of place would be hers. After the deal was concluded, the colonists chose a convenient location for the city, ringing it with narrow belts made from a single bull hide.

The authenticity of the legend is unknown, but it seems unlikely that without the favorable attitude of the natives, a handful of settlers could have established a foothold in the allotted territory and founded a city there. In addition, there is reason to believe that the settlers were representatives of a political party that was not popular in their homeland, and they could hardly hope for the support of the mother country. According to Herodotus, Justin and Ovid, soon after the founding of the city, relations between Carthage and the local population deteriorated. The leader of the Maksitan tribe Giarb, under the threat of war, demanded the hand of Queen Elissa, but she preferred death to marriage. The war, however, began and was not in favor of the Carthaginians. According to Ovid, Giarbus even captured the city and held it for several years.

Judging by the objects found during archaeological excavations, at the beginning of its history, trade relations connected Carthage with the metropolis, as well as Cyprus and Egypt.

In the 8th century BC. e. The situation in the Mediterranean has changed greatly. Phenicia was conquered by Assyria and numerous colonies became independent. Assyrian rule caused a massive exodus of population from the ancient Phoenician cities to the colonies. Probably, the population of Carthage was replenished with refugees to such an extent that Carthage was able, in turn, to form colonies itself. The first Carthaginian colony in the Western Mediterranean was the city of Ebessus on the island of Pitiuss (first half of the 7th century BC).

At the turn of the 7th and 6th centuries. BC e. Greek colonization began. In order to counter the advance of the Greeks, the Phoenician colonies began to unite into states. In Sicily - Panormus, Soluent, Motia in 580 BC. e. successfully resisted the Greeks. In Spain, a league of cities led by Hades fought Tartessus. But the basis of a single Phoenician state in the west was the union of Carthage and Utica.

The advantageous geographical position allowed Carthage to become the largest city in the western Mediterranean (the population reached 700,000 people), unite around itself the rest of the Phoenician colonies in North Africa and Spain and conduct extensive conquests and colonization.

6th century BC e.

In the 6th century, the Greeks founded the colony of Massalia and entered into an alliance with Tartessus. Initially, the Punes suffered defeats, but Mago carried out a reform of the army (now mercenaries became the basis of the troops), an alliance was concluded with the Etruscans, and in 537 BC. e. In the battle of Alalia, the Greeks were defeated. Soon Tartessus was destroyed and all the Phoenician cities of Spain were annexed.

The main source of wealth was trade - Carthaginian merchants traded in Egypt, Italy, Spain, the Black and Red Seas - and agriculture, based on the widespread use of slave labor. There was strict regulation of trade - Carthage sought to monopolize trade turnover; for this purpose, all subjects were obliged to trade only through the mediation of Carthaginian merchants. This brought huge profits, but greatly hampered the development of the territories under their control and contributed to the growth of separatist sentiments. During the Greco-Persian Wars, Carthage was allied with Persia, and together with the Etruscans an attempt was made to completely capture Sicily. But after the defeat at the Battle of Himera (480 BC) by a coalition of Greek city-states, the struggle was suspended for several decades. The main enemy of the Punics was Syracuse (by 400 BC this state was at the height of its power and sought to open trade in the west, completely captured by Carthage), the war continued at intervals of almost a hundred years (394-306 BC) and ended with the almost complete conquest of Sicily by the Punics.

III century BC e.

In the 3rd century BC. e. the interests of Carthage came into conflict with the strengthened Roman Republic. Relations, previously allied, began to deteriorate. This first appeared at the final stage of the war between Rome and Tarentum. Finally, in 264 BC. e. The First Punic War began. It was carried out mainly in Sicily and at sea. Quite quickly, the Romans captured Sicily, but this was affected by the almost complete absence of Rome’s fleet. Only by 260 BC. e. The Romans created a fleet and, using boarding tactics, won a naval victory at Cape Mila. In 256 BC. e. The Romans moved the fighting to Africa, defeating the fleet and then the land army of the Carthaginians. But the consul Attilius Regulus did not use the advantage gained, and a year later the Punic army under the command of the Spartan mercenary Xanthippus inflicted a complete defeat on the Romans. In this battle, as in many previous and subsequent ones, elephants brought victory (even though the Romans had already encountered them when fighting against Pyrrhus, king of Epirus). Only in 251 BC. e. In the battle of Panorma (Sicily), the Romans won a great victory, capturing 120 elephants. Two years later, the Carthaginians won a great naval victory (almost the only one in the entire war) and there was a lull due to the complete exhaustion of both sides.

Hamilcar Barca

In 247 BC. e. Hamilcar Barca (Lightning) became the commander-in-chief of Carthage; thanks to his outstanding abilities, success in Sicily began to lean toward the Punics, but in 241 BC. e. Rome, having gathered its strength, was able to field a new fleet and army. Carthage could no longer resist them and, after defeat, was forced to make peace, ceding Sicily to Rome, and pay an indemnity of 3,200 talents for 10 years.

After the defeat, Hamilcar resigned, power passed to his political opponents, led by Hanno. The Carthaginian government made a highly unreasonable attempt to reduce pay to mercenaries, which caused a strong uprising - the Libyans supported the army. Thus began the mercenary uprising, which almost ended in the death of the country. Hamilcar was again called to power. During the three-year war, he suppressed the uprising, but the garrison of Sardinia sided with the rebels and, fearing the tribes living on the island, recognized the power of Rome. Carthage demanded the return of the island. Since Rome was looking for an opportunity to destroy Carthage, under an insignificant pretext in 237 BC. e. declared war. Only by paying 1,200 talents to reimburse military expenses was the war averted.

The apparent inability of the aristocratic government to govern effectively led to the strengthening of the democratic opposition, led by Hamilcar. The People's Assembly vested him with the powers of commander-in-chief. In 236 BC. e., having conquered the entire African coast, he transferred the fighting to Spain. He fought there for 9 years until he fell in battle. After his death, the army chose his son-in-law Hasdrubal as commander in chief. In 16 years (236-220 BC), most of Spain was conquered and firmly tied to the metropolis. Silver mines brought very large incomes, and a magnificent army was created in battles. Overall, Carthage became much stronger than it had been even before the loss of Sicily.

Hannibal

After the death of Hasdrubal, the army chose Hannibal - the son of Hamilcar - as commander in chief. Hamilcar raised all his children - Mago, Hasdrubal and Hannibal - to hate Rome, therefore, having gained control of the army, Hannibal began to look for a reason to start a war. In 218 BC. e. he captured Saguntum - a Greek city and an ally of Rome - the war began. Unexpectedly for the enemy, Hannibal led his army around the Alps into Italian territory. There he won a number of victories - at Ticino, Trebia and Lake Trasimene. A dictator was appointed in Rome, but in 216 BC. e. near the city of Canna, Hannibal won a crushing victory, the consequence of which was the transition to his side of a significant part of Italy, and the second most important city - Capua. The fighting took place in both Spain and Sicily. Initially, Carthage was successful, but then the Romans managed to win a number of important victories. With the death of Hannibal's brother Hasdrubal, who led him with significant reinforcements, the position of Carthage became very complicated. Mago's landing in Italy was unsuccessful - he was defeated and killed in battle. Soon Rome moved the fighting to Africa. Having concluded an alliance with the king of the Numidians, Massinissa, Scipio inflicted a series of defeats on the Punes. Hannibal was called home. In 202 BC. e. In the battle of Zama, commanding a poorly trained army, he was defeated, and the Carthaginians decided to make peace. Under its terms, they were forced to give Spain and all the islands to Rome, maintain only 10 warships and pay 10,000 talents of indemnity. In addition, they had no right to fight with anyone without the permission of Rome.

After the end of the war, Hanno, Gisgon and Hasdrubal Gad, the heads of the aristocratic parties, who were hostile towards Hannibal, tried to get Hannibal condemned, but, supported by the population, he managed to retain power. Hopes for revenge were associated with his name. In 196 BC. e. Rome defeated Macedonia, which was an ally of Carthage, in the war. But there was one more ally left - the king of the Seleucid Empire, Antiochus. It was in alliance with him that Hannibal hoped to wage a new war, but first it was necessary to put an end to the oligarchic power in Carthage itself. Using his powers as suffet, he provoked a conflict with his political opponents and practically seized sole power. His tough actions against corruption among aristocratic officials caused opposition on their part. A denunciation was made to Rome about Hannibal's diplomatic relations with Antiochus. Rome demanded his extradition. Realizing that refusal would cause war, and the country was not ready for war, Hannibal was forced to flee the country to Antiochus. There he received virtually no powers, despite the greatest honors that accompanied his arrival. After the defeat of Antiochus, he hid in Crete, in Bithynia and, finally, constantly pursued by the Romans, was forced to commit suicide, not wanting to fall into the hands of the enemy.

III Punic War

Even after losing two wars, Carthage managed to quickly recover and soon became one of the richest cities again. In Rome, trade had long been an essential sector of the economy; competition from Carthage greatly hampered its development. His rapid recovery was also a big concern. Marcus Cato, who headed one of the commissions investigating the disputes of Carthage, managed to convince most of the Senate that he still posed a danger. The issue of starting the war was resolved, but it was necessary to find a convenient excuse.

The Numidian king Massinissa constantly attacked the Carthaginian possessions; Having realized that Rome always supports the opponents of Carthage, he moved on to direct seizures. All complaints of the Carthaginians were ignored and resolved in favor of Numidia. Finally, the Punes were forced to give him a direct military rebuff. Rome immediately made claims regarding the outbreak of hostilities without permission. The Roman army arrived at Carthage. The frightened Carthaginians asked for peace, the consul Lucius Censorinus demanded the surrender of all weapons, then demanded that Carthage be destroyed and that a new city be founded far from the sea. Having asked for a month to think it over, the Punes prepared for war. Thus began the Third Punic War. The city was superbly fortified, so it was possible to capture it only after 3 years of a difficult siege and heavy fighting. Carthage was completely destroyed, out of a population of 500,000, only 50,000 remained alive. A Roman province was created on its territory, ruled by a governor from Utica.

Rome in Africa

Just 100 years after the destruction of Carthage, Julius Caesar decided to found a colony on the site of the city. These plans were destined to come true only after his death. In honor of the founder, the colony was named "Colonia Julia Carthago" or "Carthaginian Colony of Julia". Roman engineers removed about 100,000 cubic meters of earth, destroying the top of Birsa to level the surface and eliminate traces of the past. Temples and beautiful public buildings were erected on this site. After some time, Carthage became “one of the most luxurious cities of the Roman world,” the second largest city in the West after Rome. To meet the needs of the city's 300,000 residents, a circus for 60,000 spectators, a theater, an amphitheater, baths and a 132-kilometer aqueduct were built there.

Christianity reached Carthage around the middle of the 2nd century AD. e. and quickly spread throughout the city. Around 155 AD. e. The famous theologian and apologist Tertullian was born in Carthage. Thanks to his works, Latin became the official language of the Western Church. In the 3rd century, Cyprian was the Bishop of Carthage, who introduced a system of seven-tier church hierarchy and died a martyr in 258 AD. e. Another North African, Augustine (354-430), the greatest Christian theologian of antiquity, combined the doctrines of the church with Greek philosophy.

By the beginning of the 5th century AD, the Roman Empire was in decline and the same was happening with Carthage. In 439 AD e. the city was captured and plundered by vandals. A hundred years later, the conquest of the city by the Byzantines temporarily stopped its final fall. In 698 AD e. the city was taken by the Arabs, its stones served as material for the construction of the city of Tunisia. In the following centuries, the marble and granite that once adorned the Roman city were looted and taken out of the country. Later they were used to build cathedrals in Genoa, Pisa, and Canterbury Cathedral in England. Today it is a suburb of Tunisia and an object of tourist pilgrimage.

Carthage today

Just 15 km from Tunisia, on a coast whitened by sea foam, opposite the Bukornina mountain range protecting its peace, stands ancient Carthage.

Carthage was built 2 times. The first time was in 814 BC, by the Phoenician princess Elissa, and was named Carthage, which means “new city” in Punic. Situated at the crossroads of the Mediterranean trade routes, it grew rapidly to become the main rival of the Roman Empire.

After the destruction of Carthage by Rome in 146 BC. During the Punic Wars, it was rebuilt as the capital of the Roman colony of Africa and continued to prosper. But it, too, eventually suffered the sad fate of Rome: the powerful cultural and commercial center was overwhelmed by crowds of barbarians in 430, then it was captured by the Byzantines in 533. After the Arab conquest, Carthage gave way to Kairouan, which became the capital of the new Arab state. Carthage was destroyed so many times, but each time it rose again. It’s not for nothing that when it was laid, the skulls of a horse and a bull were found - symbols of strength and wealth.

The city is interesting for its archaeological excavations. During excavations in the so-called Punic quarter, Punic water pipes were discovered under Roman buildings, studies of which showed how cleverly the water supply to tall (even six-story) buildings was carried out. At the beginning of our era, the Romans first leveled the site where the ruins of what was destroyed in 146 BC were located. Carthage, erected expensive retaining fortifications around the hill and built a forum on its flat top.

According to information from ancient history, first-born boys were sacrificed at this place to the patron god of the city, the god Baal-Hammon and the goddess Tanit, starting in the 5th century. BC. The whole ritual is expressively described by Gustave Flaubert in his novel Salammbô. During searches in the territory of Punic burials, archaeologists discovered about 50,000 urns with the remains of infants. On the restored tombstones one can discern the symbols of the gods carved with a chisel, the crescent moon or a stylized female figure with raised hands - the symbol of the goddess Tanit, as well as the sun disk - the symbol of Baal Hammon. Nearby are the harbors of Carthage, which later served the Romans: a commercial harbor in the south and a military harbor in the north.

Attractions

Birsa Hill. Here is the Cathedral of St. Louis. Finds from the excavations are on display at the National Museum of Carthage (Musee National de Carthage) on Birsa Hill.

The baths of Emperor Antoninus Pius in the Archaeological Park attract the greatest attention of tourists in Carthage. They were the largest in the Roman Empire after the Baths of Trajan in Rome. The aristocracy of Carthage met here for relaxation, bathing and business conversations. All that remains of the building itself are a few massive marble seats.

Next to the baths is the summer palace of the beys: today it is the residence of the President of Tunisia.

Founding of ancient Carthage

In the first volume of our work, we became acquainted with the different areas of activity of the Phoenicians; we have seen that they dominated the Mediterranean before Greek trade developed; that the enterprising merchants of Tire and Sidon founded settlements on all the shores and islands of this sea, caught purple shells, developed mines in areas rich in metals, and conducted extremely profitable barter trade with semi-wild native tribes; that the wealth of Spain and Africa was brought on “Tarshish ships” to the magnificent trading cities of Phenicia, that the tyrants, under the patronage of Melqart, the “king” of their “city,” founded trading posts and cities in places convenient for trade on the Mediterranean coast. We also saw that due to internal strife (I, 505 et seq.) some of the rich citizens left Tire and founded Carthage, the “New City”, on the cape of the African coast opposite Sicily; that thanks to the fertility of the surrounding area, its favorable position for trade, the enterprise, education and business experience of its inhabitants, this city soon achieved great power and became much richer and stronger than Tire.

Expansion of Carthage's rule in Africa

At first, the main concern of the Carthaginians was to strengthen their power over the surrounding regions. At first they were forced to give tribute or gifts to the kings of neighboring agricultural and pastoral tribes, so that the predatory natives would refrain from attacking them. But soon they, partly by mental superiority and clever politics, partly by force of arms and the founding of colonies in the lands of these tribes, managed to subjugate them. The Carthaginians tied the Numidian kings to themselves with honors, gifts, and other means, among other things, by marrying off girls from their noble families to them.

By establishing their trading colonies, the Carthaginians achieved the same benefits. like the Romans founded military colonies: they rid the capital of the restless poor, gave these poor people prosperity, and spread their language. their religious and civil institutions, their nationality, and thus strengthened their dominion over vast areas. Settlers from Phenicia strengthened the Canaanite element in northern Africa, so that the Livo-Phoenicians, a people descended from the mixing of colonists with the natives, became predominant not only in the coastal regions of Zeugitana and Byzakia, but also at a great distance from the sea. The Phoenician language and civilization penetrated far into the interior of Libya; at the courts of the kings of the nomadic tribes they spoke and wrote in Phoenician.

The Livo-Phoenicians, who lived throughout the country in villages and small unfortified cities, were very useful to the citizens of the trading cities of the seaside. Receiving large income from agriculture, they paid Carthage a significant land tax, supplied trading cities with food supplies and various other goods; they kept the pastoral Numidian tribes, who roamed the abundant pastures along the slopes of the Atlas, from raids, and taught them to agriculture and a sedentary way of life; constituted the bulk of the Carthaginian troops and the main element of the settlers during the founding of colonies overseas; were porters and workers on the Carthaginian pier, sailors and warriors on Carthaginian ships.

The mercenary troops of the Carthaginians were recruited for the most part from Livo-Phoenician villagers, strong people, accustomed to endure hardships and hardships. The cavalry for the Phoenicians was supplied by Numidian tribes that roamed the outskirts of the desert. The Carthaginian citizens formed a sacred band that surrounded the military leaders. The Livo-Phoenician infantry with the Numidian cavalry and with a small number of Carthaginians formed a brave army that fought well under the command of the Carthaginian generals in Africa, at sea, and in foreign lands. But the greedy traders of Carthage oppressed the agricultural and pastoral population of Africa, incurring their hatred, which often manifested itself in dangerous uprisings, accompanied by ferocious revenge.

Ruins of ancient Carthage on Byrsa Hill

Having achieved great power, Carthage easily acquired dominion over those Phoenician colonies that were founded before it: Hippo, Hadrumet, Major Leptida, Minor Leptida, Thaps and other cities of that coast (I, 524) were forced to recognize the power of Carthage over themselves and pay him tribute; some of them submitted voluntarily, others were subdued by force; only Utica retained some independence. The Phoenician cities of Africa, subject to Carthage, gave him troops and paid taxes, the size of which was generally significant; in return, their citizens could acquire land property in the Carthaginian possessions; their marriages with Carthaginian families were full-fledged, and they themselves enjoyed the protection of Carthaginian laws.

Navigation of ancient Carthage

Conquering neighboring regions, the Carthaginians undertook long voyages and conducted trade on a wide scale. A Greek translation has reached us of the report of the expedition of Hanno, a brave Carthaginian sailor who wrote a story in Phoenician about his discoveries and gave it to the Temple of Baal for safekeeping. He, with 60 ships and a large number of settlers, set off beyond the Pillars of Hercules, sailed along the western coast of Africa, rounded the “Southern Cape” and founded five settlements behind it, the southernmost of which was on the island of Kerne (I, 524). The Carthaginians conducted a profitable trade there, exchanging ivory, leopard and lion skins for clothes and beautiful dishes from the smooth-haired blacks of that coastal region.

They say that the Carthaginians knew the island of Madeira, and that they thought to move there if their enemies defeated them in their homeland. Around the same time as Hanno made his voyage, another trading expedition of the Carthaginians, following the example of the Tyrians, went along the western coast of Ireland (I, 527). Through pastoral tribes, the Carthaginians conducted active trade with central Africa. Caravan routes from Egyptian Thebes, the southern deserts and Carthage converged in present-day Fezzan; there the Carthaginians traded gold sand, precious stones and black slaves for dates, palm wine and salt.

Filena

After a long struggle with the Cyrene Greeks, the Carthaginians agreed on where the border between their possessions should be; it was carried out through the desert and determined very advantageously for the Carthaginians, thanks to the self-sacrifice of the Philaenov, who agreed to die for the benefit of their homeland.

The condition was that the ambassadors would leave Cyrene and Carthage at the same time to meet each other, and that where they met would be the border. The Carthaginian ambassadors were two Philene brothers. They walked very hastily and went much further than the Cyrenians expected. The Cyrene ambassadors, angry and fearing to be punished at home, began to accuse them of deceit and finally offered them a choice of either being buried alive in the place where they claimed that there should be a border, or allowing it to be moved further from Cyrene; The Cyrene ambassadors volunteered to be buried themselves in the place where they wanted to designate the border. The Filenes sacrificed their lives for their homeland and were buried in the place they reached. It became a border. The Carthaginians placed “altars of Philaenov” on their graves and built monuments in their honor.

Colonies of ancient Carthage

Carthaginian possessions were not limited to African lands. When the Nineveh and Babylonian kings began to attack Phenicia and its power fell, and then the Persians conquered it and forced the Phoenician sailors to engage in service on warships instead of trading (I, 509, 534 seq.), Carthage, considering itself the heir of Tire, of which it was a citizen founded, assumed dominion over the Phoenician colonies overseas. We saw (I, 517 et seq., 521 seq.) that the rule of Tire in Spain extended very far, that its citizens mined precious metals there, exported wool and fish from there, caught purple shells off the Spanish coast, that Tarshish ships loaded silver, were the pride of Tire, amazed the peoples neighboring Phenicia; all the Spanish possessions of Tire, which had the rich Hades as its center, submitted to Carthage either voluntarily or by force; The Phoenician colonies on the Balearic and Pitius Islands also submitted. The wealth of these trading posts and the treasures of the Spanish mines now went to Carthage; the colonies of Tire in southern Spain began, like the African ones, to pay tribute and give troops to Carthage. The Phoenician colonies on the Italian islands also submitted to him. Between 550 and 450, the chiefs of the Carthaginian fleets and troops Mago, his sons (Gazdrubal, Hamilcar) and grandsons conquered to Carthage all the colonies and trading posts of Tire in Sardinia, Corsica, Sicily, Malta and many native tribes of these islands. The ancient Phoenician colony, on the island of Sardinia, Caralis (Cagliari), was enlarged by new settlers; Libyan colonists began to cultivate the fertile coastal parts of the island, the natives left slavery in the mountains of the central part. The Carthaginians exported honey and wax from Corsica; On the Elbe (Etalia), rich in iron ore, they began to mine iron.

When the Phocians, fleeing from the Persians, wanted to settle in Corsica, the Carthaginians, uniting with the Etruscans, drove them out (II, 387). The Carthaginians tried with all their might to prevent their dangerous rivals, the Greeks, from settling on the coasts of the western part of the Mediterranean Sea and, if possible, to constrain those of their colonies that were already founded there. To do this, they concluded a trade agreement with Rome and Latium, which we have already mentioned; their squadrons sailed from the Spanish islands to attack Massalia; simultaneously with the invasion of Xerxes in Greece, Hamilcar sailed with a huge army to Sicily; this expedition ended, as we know, with his defeat at Himera (II, 513 seq.). The Carthaginians had under their rule the old Phoenician colonies in Sicily: Motia, Solunt and Panormus, and founded Lilybaeum there; This beautiful island, rich in bread, wine and olive oil, and having such an advantageous position for trade, they considered extremely important for their trading and colonization activities. In the next section we will see how stubbornly they fought for dominion over Sicily for a century and a half with the Greeks; but they firmly controlled only the western part of it up to the Galika River; The rest of the coastal regions were retained by the Greeks, and in the mountains of the central part the natives continued to graze their herds: the Elimos, the Sicans, the Sicels, and served as mercenaries either in the Carthaginian or in the Greek armies. On the neighboring islands of Sicily, Lipari, Aegata, and other small islands and on Malta, the Carthaginians had piers and warehouses for goods.

Carthaginian power

Thus, from a Tyrian trading post, Carthage became the capital of a vast state, a city so rich that there were hardly any other trading cities equal in power before. From Tingis to greater Sirte, all the cities and tribes of northern Africa obeyed him: some paid tribute, others gave troops, or cultivated the fields of Carthaginian citizens. Owning many cities, marinas and fortifications along all the shores and islands of the western Mediterranean Sea, the Carthaginians considered it their property and left little room for Etruscan and Greek trade there. Knowing how to use the products of those countries, acquiring enormous wealth from them, they also used the forces of the natives for their wars. Almost all western tribes served under Carthaginian banners. Next to detachments of Carthaginian citizens, shining with rich weapons, Libyan infantry with long spears went into battle. Numidian horsemen, dressed in skins, rode on small hot horses and fought with darts; Spanish and Gallic mercenaries in colorful national costumes, lightly armed Ligurians and Campanians helped them; the terrible Balearic slingers threw lead bullets with their belts with such force that it resembled the effect of rifle shots.

Prosperity of the Carthage region

The income of Carthage was enormous. Malaya Leptida paid him annually 365 talents (more than 500,000 rubles); from this it can be seen that the amount of tribute from all regions of the state reached a colossal figure; In addition, large incomes were generated by mines, customs duties, and land taxes on villagers. State revenues were so great that Carthaginian citizens did not need to pay any taxes. They enjoyed a flourishing state. In addition to income from extensive trade and factories, they received cash payments, or part of the product from their estates, which lay in an extremely fertile country, and occupied profitable positions as tax collectors and rulers in cities and districts subject to Carthage. Descriptions of Carthage and its environs by Polybius, Diodorus and other ancient writers show that the wealth of the Carthaginians was very great. These descriptions say that the Carthaginian region was covered with gardens and plantations, because there were canals everywhere that provided sufficient irrigation. Country houses stretched in continuous rows, testifying in their splendor to the wealth of the owners. The dwellings of the Carthaginians were filled with all sorts of things needed for convenience and pleasure. Taking advantage of the long peace, the Carthaginians collected huge reserves of them. Everywhere in the Carthaginian region there were many vineyards, olive groves, and orchards. Herds of cattle, sheep and goats grazed across the beautiful meadows; There were huge horse farms in the lowlands. Bread grew luxuriously in the fields; There was especially a lot of wheat and barley. Countless cities and towns of the fertile Carthaginian region were surrounded by vineyards, pomegranates, fig trees, and all sorts of other fruit orchards. Prosperity was visible everywhere, because the noble Carthaginians loved to live on their estates and competed with each other in their concerns about their improvement. Agriculture was in a flourishing state among the Carthaginians; They had agronomic works so good that the Romans subsequently translated these books into their own language, and the Roman government recommended them to Italian rural owners. Just as the general appearance of the country testified to the wealth of the Carthaginians, so the vastness and beauty of the capital, the enormity of its fortifications, the splendor of public buildings, showed the power of the state, the wisdom and generosity of its government.

Geographical location of Carthage

Carthage stood on a cape, connected to the mainland only by a narrow isthmus; this location was very advantageous for maritime trade but at the same time convenient for defense. The coast was steep; after the flood from the sea, the city was surrounded by only one wall, but on the mainland side it was protected by a triple row of walls that were 30 cubits high and fortified with towers. Between the walls there were dwellings for soldiers, warehouses for food supplies, stables for cavalry, sheds for war elephants. The harbor on the open sea side was designated for merchant ships, and the other, called Coton, named after the island located in it, served for warships. There were arsenals on the island. Near the military harbor there was a public assembly square. From the wide square, lined with tall houses, the main street of the city led to the citadel, called Birsa: from Birsa, a 60-step climb led to the top of the hill, on which stood the rich, famous temple of Aesculapius (Esmuna).

Government structure of ancient Carthage

Now we must talk about the state structure of Carthage, as far as it is known to us from scanty fragmentary news.

Aristotle says that in the government of Carthage aristocratic and democratic elements were combined, but the aristocratic ones predominated; He finds it very good that the Carthaginian state was ruled by noble families, but the people were not completely excluded from participating in government. From this we see that Carthage retained in general terms those institutions that existed in Tire and belonged to all Phoenician cities (I, 511 et seq.). Noble families retained all government power in their hands, but owed their influential position not only to their nobility, but also to wealth; the personal merits of their members were also of great importance. The government council, which the Greeks call the gerusia, and the Romans the senate, consisted of aristocrats; the number of its members was 300; he had the greatest power over state affairs; its committee was another council, consisting of either 10 or 30 members. The council was presided over by two dignitaries, called sufet (judges); ancient writers compare them either with the Spartan kings or with the Roman consuls; therefore, some scientists think that their rank was for life, and others that they were elected for a year. The second opinion should be considered the most probable: annual elections are more consistent with the character of an aristocratic republic than the lifetime of the dignity. Current affairs were probably managed by a council of ten (or thirty) senators with the participation of sufets; Roman writers call the members of this council principes; important matters were, of course, decided by the general meeting of the Senate. Those issues the decision of which exceeded the power of the Senate, or on which the Sufet and the Senate could not agree among themselves, were given to the decision of the people's assembly, which, it seems, also had the power to approve or reject the elections of dignitaries and military leaders made by the Senate. But generally speaking, the popular assembly had little influence. Chairmen of the Senate, Sufet. also presided over the court. Whether the Sufets were commanders-in-chief by their very rank, or received the power of commanders-in-chief only for a special purpose, we do not know; whether both of them could go on a campaign, or whether one of them had to remain in the city to manage administrative and judicial affairs, we also do not know. The military power of the commander-in-chief was unlimited; but in concluding treaties he had to obey the opinion of the committee of senators accompanying the army. To protect the state from the lust for power of commanders, the aristocracy has long established the “Council of Hundred,” which was the custodian of the existing order, which had the right to put military leaders to trial and punish all kinds of malicious intent.

In aristocratic states there are always several families that enjoy very great influence on state affairs due to their enormous wealth. If one of these families acquires special fame for its merits, has great commanders who pass on their military experience to their children, then it receives such predominance in the state that thoughts of subjugating the homeland to its dominion can easily arise in it. In the first half of the 6th century, the military leader Malchus (Malchus), punished by exile for failure in the war on the island of Sardinia, went with an army to Carthage and crucified ten senators hostile to him on the cross. The Senate managed to defeat this ambitious man, but one could be wary of other such attempts. The danger became especially great since the family of Mago, the founder of the power of the Carthaginians at sea, the first commander to make great conquests outside Africa, acquired enormous influence; his talents were hereditary through three generations of his offspring. To protect the state from the ambitions of military leaders, the Senate chose from among itself the Council of the Sta, which was entrusted with examining the actions of military leaders upon their return from the war and keeping them in obedience to the laws. Such was the origin of the formidable board called the council of Sta. It was established, as we see, to protect the republican order, but later became a political inquisition, before whose despotic power everyone had to bow. Aristotle compares the council of the Sta to the Spartan ephors. This council was not content with curbing the evil intentions of military leaders and other ambitious people; it arrogated to itself the right to observe the way of life of the citizens. He punished military leaders who failed with such merciless cruelty that many took their own lives, preferring this to his ferocious judgment. Moreover, the Council of Sta acted very biasedly. "In Carthage." says Livy (XXXIII, 46) “The Committee of Judges” (i.e., the Council of the Hundred), elected for life, acts autocratically. Everyone's property, honor and life are in their hands. Whoever has one of them as his enemy has all of them as enemies, and when judges are hostile to man, there will be no shortage of accusers.” The members of the Council of the Sta assigned life to their rank and strengthened their power by choosing their comrades to fill vacant positions. Hannibal, with the assistance of the democratic party, imbued with patriotism and striving to transform the state, took away the lifetime dignity of the members of the Council of the Hundred and introduced annual elections of its members; this reform was an important step towards replacing oligarchic rule with democratic rule.

Religion of ancient Carthage

Just as in their state structure the Carthaginians retained the order that existed in Tire, so in religion they adhered to Phoenician beliefs and rituals, although they borrowed from other peoples some deities and forms of worship related to those familiar to them. The Phoenician deities of nature, who were personifications of its powers, forever remained the dominant deities of the Carthaginians. The Tyrian Melqart also retained among the Carthaginians the meaning of the supreme tribal god, as we see, by the way, from the fact that they constantly sent embassies and gifts to his Tyrian temple. The representations about him personified the wanderings of the people engaged in maritime trade; he was in a symbolic union with Astarte-Dido, the patroness of Carthage; serving him was the connection that connected all Phoenician settlements; therefore, he was of high importance to the Carthaginians, and his cult was the most important among them. We have already seen (I, 538 et seq.) that they maintained, in all its horror, the terrible service of the god of the sun and fire Moloch, whose sacrifices received such a tragic development. Deeply rooted in the national character of the Phoenicians were the contrasts of voluptuousness and sadness, effeminate devotion to pleasure and capacity for extreme effort, readiness for self-torture, courageous energy and sluggish despair, arrogance and servility, love of refined pleasures and rude ferocity; these contrasts were expressed in the service of Ashtoreth and Moloch; therefore, the Carthaginians loved him to such an extent that voluptuous rites and human sacrifices to Molech remained in full force among them, when in Tire itself this depravity and this inhumanity had already been destroyed by the influence of the Persians and Greeks and the development of humanity.

“The religious worldview of the Carthaginians was harsh and gloomy,” says Boetticher: “with sadness in her soul, but with a forced smile, to please the deity, the mother sacrificed her beloved child to a terrible idol; such was the whole character of the life of the people. Just as the religion of the Carthaginians was cruel and servile, so they themselves were gloomy, slavishly obedient to the government, cruel to their subjects and foreigners, arrogant in anger, timid in fear. The vile sacrifices to Moloch drowned out all human feelings in them; therefore, it is not surprising that with cold cruelty they mercilessly tortured and killed the defeated enemies, and in their fanaticism did not spare either the temples or tombs of the enemy’s land.” On the island of Sardinia, prisoners of war and old people were also sacrificed to God with forced laughter (from this laughter, some produce the expression sardonic laughter). It would be better for the Carthaginians not to believe in any gods than to believe in such, says Plutarch, indignation at these religious horrors.

The liturgical rites of the Carthaginians were as inextricably linked with all matters of political and military life as among the Romans. Military leaders made sacrifices before the battle and during the battle itself; with the army there were interpreters of the will of the gods, which had to be obeyed; trophies of victories were brought to the temples; when founding a new colony, first of all, they built a temple for the deity who would be its patron; when concluding treaties, the highest deities were called as witnesses, and in particular the deities of fire, earth, air, water, meadows and rivers; in honor of people who provided great services to the fatherland, altars and temples were erected; for example, Hamilcar, who sacrificed himself to the god of fire in the Battle of Himera, the brothers Philenes, Alet, who discovered silver ore in New Carthage, were revered as heroes, and temples were erected as altars to them. Both in Tire and in Carthage, the high priest was the first dignitary after the main rulers of the state.

Character of the Carthaginians

Reviewing the institutions and morals of the Carthaginians, we see that they brought to the extreme development the general character traits of the Semitic tribe and especially the Phoenician branch of it. In all Semites, selfishness is sharply manifested: it is manifested both in their tendency to acquire profit through trade and industry and in their fragmentation into small closed states, clans and families. It favored the development of energy and prevented the emergence of eastern despotism, in which the individual is absorbed by the general, enslavement; but he directed his thoughts exclusively to concerns about real life, rejected all ideal and humane aspirations, and often forced him to sacrifice the good of society for the benefits of the party, or for personal interests. The Carthaginians had many qualities worthy of high respect; courageous enterprise led them to great discoveries, found trade routes to distant unknown countries; their practical mind improved the inventions made in Phenicia, thereby contributing to the development of human culture; their patriotism was so strong that they willingly sacrificed everything for the benefits of their homeland; their troops were well organized; their fleets dominated the western seas; their ships surpassed all others in size and speed; their state life was more comfortable and stronger than in most of the other republics of the ancient world; their cities and villages were rich. But with these venerable qualities they had great shortcomings and vices. Enviously, they tried by all means, both force and cunning, to eliminate other peoples from participating in their trade and, abusing their strength at sea, often engaged in piracy; they were ruthlessly harsh towards their subjects, did not allow them to derive any benefit from the victories won with their assistance, did not bother to bind them to themselves with good, fair relations; they were ferocious to their slaves, countless numbers of whom worked on their ships, in their mines, in their trade and industry; they were harsh and ungrateful regarding their mercenary troops. Their state life suffered from aristocratic despotism, the combination of several positions in one hand, the corruption of dignitaries, and disregard for the common good because of the benefits of the party. Their wealth and innate penchant for sensual pleasures gave them such luxury and immorality that all the peoples of the ancient world condemned their debauchery; developed by their religious rituals, it reached the point of vileness. Gifted with a strong mind, they used their abilities not so much to develop science, literary and artistic activities, but to come up with tricks, to gain benefits for themselves by deception. They so selfishly used, to the detriment of others, the insight and flexibility of mind innate to all Semitic peoples that the expression “Punic,” that is, Carthaginian “conscientiousness,” became a proverb to denote unscrupulous deceit.

Literature and Science of Ancient Carthage

They did not strive for ideal goals and did not value higher mental activities; did not create culture, like the Greeks, did not create a legal state order, like the Romans, did not create astronomy, like the Babylonians and Egyptians; even in technical arts they seem not only not to have surpassed the Tyrians, but also not to have equaled them. Perhaps their literature was not as insignificant as it seems with the destruction of all its works; perhaps they had good books, destroyed by the terrible military storms that devastated the Carthaginian country; but the very fact that all Carthaginian literature perished proves that it did not have much internal dignity; otherwise it would not have all disappeared almost without a trace in times that were far from devoid of intellectual interests; more would have been preserved from it than the account of Hanno's expedition in Greek translation, Mago's treatise on agriculture and vague news of what the Romans gave to his allies, the native kings, Carthaginian books of historical content and some other literary works. The field of poetry was alien to the Carthaginians, philosophy was an unknown secret to them; their art served only luxury and brilliance. Caring exclusively about real life, they did not know the highest aspirations, did not know the peace of mind and happiness that love for ideal goods brings, did not know the eternally young kingdom of fantasy, not destroyed by any blows of fate.

"Carthage must be destroyed" (Latin Carthago delenda est, Carthaginem delendam esse) - a Latin catchphrase meaning an insistent call to fight an enemy or obstacle. In a broader sense, it is a constant return to the same issue, regardless of the general topic of discussion.

Carthage (Phoenix: Qart Hadasht, Latin: Carthago, Arabic: قرطاج, Carthage, French: Carthage, ancient Greek: Καρχηδών) is an ancient city in Tunisia, near the capital of the country - the city of Tunis, as part of the capital vilayet of Tunis.

The name Qart Hadasht (in Punic notation without the vowels Qrthdst) is translated from Phoenician as “new city”.

Throughout its history, Carthage was the capital of the Phoenician-founded state of Carthage, one of the largest powers in the Mediterranean. After the Punic Wars, Carthage was taken and destroyed by the Romans, but then rebuilt and became the most important city of the Roman Empire in the province of Africa, a major cultural and then early Christian church center. Then captured by the Vandals and was the capital of the Vandal Kingdom. But after the Arab conquest it fell into decline again.

Currently, Carthage is a suburb of the Tunisian capital, in which the presidential residence and the University of Carthage are located.

In 1831, a society for the study of Carthage was opened in Paris. Since 1874, excavations at Carthage have been carried out under the direction of the French Academy of Inscriptions. Since 1973, research on Carthage has been carried out under the auspices of UNESCO.

Carthaginian state

Carthage founded in 814 BC e. colonists from the Phoenician city of Tyre. After the fall of Phoenician influence, Carthage re-subordinated the former Phoenician colonies and turned into the capital of the largest state in the Western Mediterranean. By the 3rd century BC. e. The Carthaginian state subjugates Southern Spain, North Africa, western Sicily, Sardinia, and Corsica. After a series of wars against Rome (Punic Wars), it lost its conquests and was destroyed in 146 BC. e., its territory was turned into a province of Africa.

Location

Carthage was founded on a promontory with entrances to the sea in the north and south. The city's location made it a leader in Mediterranean maritime trade. All ships crossing the sea inevitably passed between Sicily and the coast of Tunisia.

Two large artificial harbors were dug within the city: one for the navy, capable of accommodating 220 warships, the other for commercial trade. On the isthmus that separated the harbors, a huge tower was built, surrounded by a wall.

Roman era

Julius Caesar proposed to found a Roman colony on the site of the destruction of Carthage (it was founded after his death). Thanks to its convenient location on trade routes, the city soon grew again and became the capital of the Roman province of Africa, which included the lands of what is now northern Tunisia.

After Rome

During the Great Migration and the collapse of the Western Roman Empire North Africa was captured by Vandals and Alans who made Carthage the capital of their state. This state lasted until 534, when the commanders of the Eastern Roman emperor Justinian I returned the African lands to the empire. Carthage became the capital of the Carthaginian Exarchate.

A fall

After the conquest of North Africa Arabs The city of Kairouan, founded by them in 670, became the new center of the Ifriqiya region, and Carthage quickly faded away.