Geography of Sudan: relief, climate, population, flora and fauna. Northern Sudan: photo, climate, capital. Southern and Northern Sudan Which countries does Sudan border on?
Republic of Sudan. State in northeastern Africa. Capital Khartoum (3 million people 2002). Territory 2.506 million sq. km. Administrative division 26 provinces. Population 39.15 million people (2004). Official language Arabic. Religion Islam, Christianity and traditional African beliefs. Currency unit Sudanese dinar. National holiday January 1 Independence Day (1956), as a public holiday since 1989 is also celebrated on June 30 National Salvation Revolution Day. Sudan has been a member of the UN since 1956, the Organization of African Unity (OAU) since 1963, and since 2002 its successor the African Union (AU), the Non-Aligned Movement, the League of Arab States (LAS) since 1956, the Organization of the Islamic Conference (OIC), as well as the General Market of Eastern and Southern Africa (COMESA) since 1994.
A continental state, one of the largest in terms of territory in Africa and in the world. It borders in the west with the CAR (Central African Republic) and Chad, in the northwest with Libya, in the north with Egypt, in the east with Eritrea and Ethiopia, in the south with Kenya, Uganda and the DRC (Democratic Republic of Congo) , the northeastern part of the country is washed by the waters of the Red Sea. The length of the coastline is 853 km.
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Sidahmed, A.S. Politics and Islam in Contemporary Sudan. Richmond, Curzon Press, 1996
Historia Afryki do początku XIX wieku. Wroclaw, 1996
Nyaba, P.A. The Politics of Liberation in South Sudan: An Insider's View. Kampala, Fountain Publishers, 1997
Sudan. Directory. M., Publishing company "Oriental Literature" RAS, 2000
Polyakov K.I. Islamic fundamentalism in Sudan. M., 2000
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Fakhrutdinova N.Z. The Islamic factor in the socio-political life of Sudan. M., 2004
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Sudan- a state in northeast Africa, is the largest on the African continent. It borders on Egypt in the north, Eritrea and Ethiopia in the east, Kenya, Uganda and the Democratic Republic of the Congo in the south, and the Central African Republic, Chad and Libya in the west. In the east it is washed by the Red Sea.
The name of the country comes from the Arabic Bilyad es-Sudan, which means “land of the blacks”.
Capital
Square
Population
36080 thousand people
Administrative division
The state is divided into 9 states.
Form of government
Republic.
Head of State
The president.
Supreme legislative body
National Assembly.
Supreme executive body
Government.
Big cities
Omdurman, North Khartoum, Port Sudan.
Official language
Arab.
Religion
70% are Sunni Muslims, 25% are pagans, 5% are Christians.
Ethnic composition
49% are African, 39% are Arab, 8% are Nubian, 3% are Beja.
Currency
Sudanese dinar = 10 pounds = 100 piastres.
Climate
The climate in the north of Sudan is tropical, desert, in the south it is equatorial monsoon. Seasonal temperature differences are most noticeable in desert areas - from + 4C in the winter months to + 43 °C in the summer. During the year, only 200 mm of precipitation falls in the north, and 500-1400 mm in the south.
Flora
The territory of Sudan is partially covered by the Libyan and Nubian deserts, where vegetation is practically absent. Several species of acacia grow in the regions adjacent to the Nile. In the central part of the country there are extensive forests - ebony, baobab, papyrus, rubber trees, and oil palm grow here.
Fauna
The tropical regions of South Sudan are home to a large number of representatives of the animal world - crocodile, hippopotamus. There are also giraffe, leopard, lion, and various monkeys. There are several species of tropical birds and poisonous snakes.
Rivers and lakes
The largest rivers are the Nile and its two branches - the White Nile and the Blue Nile.
Attractions
In Khartoum - the parliament building and the Palace of the Republic, the National Museum of Sudan, the Museum of Natural History, the Ethnographic Museum, dilapidated pyramids. In Omdurman - the house of the Caliph.
Useful information for tourists
The people living in Sudan are extremely friendly, welcoming and not intrusive. Near almost every dwelling you will be invited, offered food, tea, accommodation and everything else that a traveler might need on the road. In Sudan uva-; positive attitude towards foreigners, and especially towards Russian speakers.
Sudanese north of Khartoum live in clay, rectangular, one-story houses with several rooms inside; These houses and the courtyard are fenced with a low clay fence. In the south, small round clay houses with a cone-shaped roof are built. As a rule, there is no courtyard or fence around such houses.
You can also meet nomadic Bedouins living in houses with thatched walls and ceilings. Such houses are the poorest.
The official name is The Republic of the Sudan.
Located in northeast Africa. Area 2506 thousand km2, population 35.1 million people. (2002). The official language is Arabic. The capital is Khartoum (3 million people, 2002). National holiday - Independence Day on January 1 (since 1956). National Salvation Revolution Day is also celebrated as a public holiday - June 30 (since 1989). The monetary unit is the Sudanese dinar (equal to 10 pounds or 100 piastres).
Member of the UN (since 1956), AU (since 1963), Arab League (since 1956).
Sights of Sudan
Geography of Sudan
Located between 15°36′N latitude and 32°33′E longitude. It is washed by the waters of the Red Sea. The length of the coastline is 853 km. The coast is a narrow strip of coastal lowland, adjacent to mountains. It borders on the north with Egypt, on the east with Eritrea and Ethiopia, on the south with Kenya, Uganda and the Democratic Republic of the Congo, on the west with the Central African Republic, Chad and Libya.
Sudan is divided into three physical-geographical regions: desert in the north, most of which is occupied by the sandy Libyan and sandy-rocky Nubian deserts (about 30% of the territory); a vast semi-arid region of steppes and low mountains in the center; vast swamps and jungles in the south of the country. In the west are the Darfur and Kordofan plateaus with individual mountains and massifs (Mount Marra in Darfur - 3088 m). In the east are the spurs of the Ethiopian Highlands (Habesha). In the northeast are the Red Sea Mountains. The highest point in Sudan is Mount Kineti (3187 m), located in the south near the border with Uganda.
The subsoil of Sudan contains reserves of oil, natural gas, iron ore, copper, tin, zinc, molybdenum, tungsten, chromium, manganese, gold, silver, uranium, marble, asbestos, graphite, and gypsum.
In the north and in some areas of the west, the soil cover is poorly developed. In the south, red ferralitic and alferritic soils of tall grass savannas predominate; to the north, red-brown soils of desert savannas predominate. In the area between the Blue and White Nile (Gezira region) there are heavy, dark-colored soils. There are also continuous tropical hydromorphic and alluvial soils. The northern half of Sudan lies in the semi-desert and desert zone, almost devoid of vegetation. The southern half of the country is mostly savannah, tall grass. Among the plants, in addition to herbs, are baobab, numerous acacias, including species that produce gum arabic. There are also tropical forests in the south. In some southern and mountainous areas in tropical forests there are two types of coffee tree, tree spurge, heglik soap tree, etc.
In the northern part the climate is tropical desert. Average monthly temperatures range from +30-35°C to +15-20°C. In summer the thermometer rises to +43°C. There is very little precipitation - less than 200 mm. In the south the climate is tropical with equatorial monsoons. Average monthly temperatures are +23-30°C. The annual amount of precipitation falling in the summer months is 500-1400 mm. In the central part of Sudan the climate is transitional. On the eve of the rainy season there are the highest temperatures and often dust storms (habub).
Sudan's only river system is the Nile, which crosses the country from south to north. The Nile is formed from the confluence of two tributaries - the White and Blue Nile in the Khartoum region. The Blue Nile flows from Lake Tana in Ethiopia. Its length in Sudan is 800 km. The White Nile originates in Tanzania. On the territory of Sudan from the border with Uganda to the city of Malakal, where the Al-Ghazal tributary flows into it, it is called Bahr al-Jebel (sea of mountains). This is due to the fact that when it reaches the plain in the south, the White Nile enters the area of swamps, and during the summer rainy season, the flood increases the area occupied by water to 60 thousand km2. The Atbara tributary flows into the Nile 320 km to the north.
Groundwater does not lie very deep. Their presence is very important for the economy and life of the population in hot climates.
Many animals are found in the southern tropical regions of Sudan. There are elephants, crocodiles, hippos, giraffes, leopards, lions, various monkeys, poisonous snakes, and several species of tropical birds.
Population of Sudan
Sudan is characterized by high population growth, both for the northern and southern provinces - 2.6-3.2% per year. Over the past 40 years, the population has almost tripled, and the urban population has increased 7.5 times. Birth rate 38.6%, mortality 10.2%. The average life expectancy for men is 56 years, for women 58 years (2001).
The ratio of men to women in the entire population is 0.99. Urban population 31% (1999). Population density 14 people. per 1 km2 (2002).
In terms of ethnic composition, more than 1/2 of the country's population are Arabs, 30% are Negroid tribes inhabiting the southern regions of the country, 6% are Beja tribes, 6% are Nuba tribes. In total, there are more than 570 tribes in Sudan.
Arabic predominates in the northern part of the country; it is also spoken by the Nubians, who have their own language. South Sudanese tribes speak more than 100 distinct languages. Over 70% of the population are Sunni Muslims, less than 30% (residents of the south) are Christians and animists.
History of Sudan
In the 1st half. 12th century BC. A Nubian slave state arose on the territory of Northern Sudan and Egypt. OK. 560 BC The Nubians were driven out of Egypt. They moved the capital of the state from Napata to Meroe. The Meroitic state was very developed for that time. The Meroites mastered iron smelting, various crafts, built stone palaces and fortresses, and created their own culture.
In the 5th-6th centuries. the population of Northern Sudan was converted to Christianity. The ancient Meroitic civilization is being replaced by the medieval Nubian civilization (Makuria, Alva, Nobatia). The Nubian civilization reached its greatest prosperity in the 9th-12th centuries.
From the 7th century Islam began to penetrate into Sudan. In the 16th century Large feudal Muslim sultanates arose, which fought among themselves for dominance. One of the strongest was the Sennar Sultanate.
In 1820-22, the Turkish-Egyptian army of the ruler of Egypt, Muhammad Ali, conquered all of Northern and Central Sudan and annexed it to Egypt. During the subsequent military expeditions of the Egyptians to the south in 1827-78, they subjugated almost the entire territory of modern Sudan to Egypt.
During the period when Sudan was part of the Ottoman Empire, there were often outbreaks of discontent among the Sudanese population with the rule of foreigners. In the northern and central regions of Sudan, unrest began among the population. Sufi brotherhoods (ta-riqats) began to preach and teach: Ansariyya, Khatmiya, Ismailiya Tijaniyya, Idrisiyya, and others. In 1878, an uprising of Sudanese Arabs broke out in the southwestern provinces. In 1881, the Mahdist uprising against Turkish-Egyptian rule began. In 1883, the Dinka tribes rebelled, joined by the Beja tribes. On January 5, 1885, the Mahdists captured Omdurman, and on January 25, Khartoum fell under their attacks. In July 1885, Turkish-Egyptian troops left Sudan, and the Mahdists proclaimed the creation of an independent theocratic state based on the Koran. It existed until 1898.
In 1896, a 10,000-strong expeditionary force of British and Egyptian troops entered into battle with the Mahdist troops and defeated them in several clashes. On September 1, 1898, the British captured Omdurman, and the Mahdist state fell.
On January 18, 1899, in Cairo, the Prime Minister of Egypt and the British general signed an Agreement on the joint administration of Sudan. From that moment on, Sudan received the official name Anglo-Egyptian Sudan. In fact, Sudan became a British colony. During the years of the existence of the condominium, dissatisfaction with the power of the colonialists grew among the Sudanese population. After World War II, political parties appeared in Sudan that raised the question of the country's independence.
The independence of Sudan was proclaimed on January 1, 1956. The political struggle between traditional parties led to a military coup in Sudan in November 1958. The power of the military fell in 1964 as a result of widespread popular protest against the regime of General Abboud. A parliamentary republic was restored in Sudan. The new government included representatives of the main political parties of both the right and left, united in the National Front in the fight against the military dictatorship. However, the united front did not last long.
In 1965, right-wing forces achieved the ban of the Sudanese Communist Party. Right-wing parties came to power. Portfolios in the government were divided between the Al-Umma and NUP parties. Leftist organizations were not represented in the government.
A state of protracted political and economic crisis and military operations in the south of the country led in May 1969 to a new military coup in Sudan, carried out by a group of officers led by Colonel J. Nimeiri. The new military leadership banned the activities of traditional right-wing parties. Legal ban on the activities of the Sudanese Communist Party. (UKP) was not removed, but the communists resumed the semi-legal printing of their newspaper, and 5 members of the Central Committee of the UPC became part of the new government.
The country carried out the nationalization of some large industrial enterprises, transport, insurance and trading firms. During this period, relations between Sudan and the USSR actively developed.
On July 19, 1971, a group of young officers attempted to remove J. Nimeiri. After the failure of the coup, Nimeiri brought down repression on the UPC, accusing it of involvement in the conspirators. The USSR and other socialist countries were included in the same category. Nimeiri reoriented foreign policy relations, began to pursue a policy of liberalization in the economy, a line to attract foreign investment. Previously nationalized enterprises and firms were returned to their previous owners. In 1972, an agreement was signed to resolve the South Sudan problem.
In April 1985, a group of senior officers led by the Minister of Defense, General A. Dagab, carried out a bloodless coup d'etat, taking advantage of the growing discontent with the Nimeiri regime, the resumption of hostilities in the south and the general crisis in the country. A year later, the military, as promised, transferred power to the newly elected Constituent Assembly. The leader of the Al-Umma Party, Sadiq al-Mahdi, became Prime Minister.
On June 30, 1989, a coup d'etat took place in Sudan. Power passed to the Command Council of the Revolution of National Salvation (SCRNS), composed of 15 officers led by General Omar Hassan Ahmed al-Bashir. SKRNS announced the suspension of the temporary Constitution of 1985, the dissolution of parliament, house arrest of all members of the government, a number of high-ranking military officers, officials, political and public figures, the banning of all political parties, the closure of left-wing and centrist newspapers, and restrictions on the activities of trade unions. Having achieved a certain stabilization of the situation in the country, the SKRNS in December 1990 declared a course towards “Islamization” as the doctrine of the ruling regime. Under these conditions, the role of the National Islamic Front and its chairman H. Turabi began to increase in Sudan.
On October 16, 1993, SKRNS appointed O. Bashir as president of the country and announced self-dissolution. In March 1996, presidential and parliamentary elections were held in Sudan. Omar Hassan Ahmed al-Bashir was elected president.
Government and political system of Sudan
Sudan is a state with a republican form of government of the federal type.
The Constitution of 1998 is in force (approved by referendum). Administratively, Sudan is divided into 26 governorates (states), each headed by a government-appointed governor. The largest cities: Khartoum (unites three cities - Omdurman, Khartoum and North Khartoum), Wad Medani, Atbara, Port Sudan, Juba, Wau, Kassala, El Obeid.
The highest legislative body is the National Assembly. The number of deputies is 360. The highest executive body is the Council of Ministers. The Chairman of the National Assembly is Ahmed Ibrahim Taher. Prime Minister - Omar Hassan Ahmed al-Bashir (President of the Republic).
Famous political figures of Sudan who served as presidents and prime ministers:
Jaafar Nimeiri - served as the leader of the country in 1969-85, has the rank of Marshal of the Sudanese Armed Forces;
Sadiq al-Mahdi - leader of the Al-Umma Party, served as prime minister in 1986-89;
Omar Hassan Ahmed al-Bashir - Lieutenant General, leader of Sudan since 1989 (Chairman of the SKRNS), President of Sudan since 1993.
Governorates are granted broad powers in the field of legislative and executive power. However, in reality, the federation created in Sudan (decree of 1994) is nominal. The system of public administration still retains the rigid character characteristic of the military regime.
The right to create political organizations within the framework of the law is guaranteed by the country's Constitution of 1998 (after the military coup on June 30, 1989, all political organizations were banned). Registration of parties resumed in January 1999. At the end of the day. 2002 more than 30 parties were registered.
Main political parties:
National Congress - ruling party (successor to the National Islamic Front), President O. al-Bashir (President of Sudan), Secretary General Ibrahim Hassan Omar;
Unionist Democratic Party (UDP), founded in 1967, leader Osman al-Mirghani, general secretary Sherif Zeid al-Din al-Hindi;
Al-Umma Islamic Party, founded in 1945, leader Sadiq al-Mahdi, general secretary Omar Nur Ad-Daim;
a number of opposition political parties are united in the National Democratic Alliance, headquartered in Asmara (Eritrea), chairman Osman al-Mirghani, secretary general Mubarak al-Mahdi;
The Sudanese People's Liberation Movement (SPLM), leader John Garang de Mabior, was founded in 1983 (the opposition South Sudanese movement is negotiating with the Sudanese government on issues of settlement in the South of Sudan).
The internal political situation in Sudan is characterized by tension. In 1999, the confrontation between O. al-Bashir and the forces of radical Islamists led by H. Turabi intensified. The President announced the dissolution of the parliament, chaired by the leader of the NIF, and declared a state of emergency to suppress protests by disgruntled Turabi supporters.
In February 2000, the headquarters of the People's Islamic Conference, which united radical fundamentalist organizations in a number of countries in the Muslim world, was closed in Khartoum. In May 2000, Turabi was removed from the post of secretary general of the ruling National Congress party, and in February he was arrested along with a number of supporters.
The authorities were actively working to achieve national reconciliation through dialogue with all political forces both within the country and abroad. The government took the initiative to hold a General Congress of National Dialogue in Khartoum with the participation of representatives of all political forces in the country.
In May 1999, former President J. Nimeiri returned to Sudan after 14 years of emigration; in November 2000, the leader of the largest opposition party Al-Umma Sadiq al-Mahdi; in November 2001, one of the prominent figures of the opposition National Democratic Alliance, deputy chairman UDP Ahmed Mirghani.
For decades, one of the main destabilizing factors has been the unresolved South Sudan problem. Tensions between the Muslim North and the Christian South remain one of the main reasons for the ongoing civil war in the South. From 1983 (since the resumption of armed clashes in the South of Sudan) to 2003, approx. 2 million people In the beginning. 2003 Between the government of Sudan and the opposing SPLM, led by former Sudanese Armed Forces Colonel John Garant, agreements were reached that could serve as the basis for achieving a final settlement of the South Sudan problem.
In foreign policy, Sudan advocates the development of relations with all countries. He declares his commitment to the Charters of the UN, AU, LAS, OIC.
After the lifting on September 28, 2001 by the UN Security Council of limited diplomatic sanctions imposed against Sudan in connection with a complaint from Egypt and Ethiopia accusing Sudan of involvement in an attempt on the life of Egyptian President Hamid Mubarak in June 1995 in Addis Ababa, Khartoum is making efforts to normalize relations with neighboring countries. Relations with the USA and Great Britain are being established. Washington is taking steps to assist in resolving the conflict in Southern Sudan (a special representative of US President George W. Bush has been appointed on this issue).
In May 1999, Sudan announced its accession to the Convention on the Prohibition of the Development, Production, Stockpiling and Use of Chemical Weapons and on Their Destruction. Khartoum has also acceded to all international treaties and agreements on the fight against terrorism.
The total number of regular Armed Forces is 117 thousand people, paramilitary formations (people's defense forces) are 7 thousand people. Military budget 387 million US dollars (2001). Ground forces 112.5 thousand people, Air Force 3 thousand people, Navy 240 people.
Economy of Sudan
Sudan is one of the underdeveloped countries and is one of the poorest countries in the world. GDP $12.2 billion, per capita income $385 (2001). Inflation - 10% (2001). The basis of the economy is agriculture, which employs approx. 80% of the economically active population. It accounts for 45% of GDP. The share of industry in GDP is 22.8% (it employs about 5% of the population), the service sector is 31.6% (2002).
Despite its large mineral resources, Sudan's industry as a whole is poorly developed. Main industries: mining (8.7% of GDP), manufacturing (7.9% of GDP), light and food, pharmaceuticals, production of construction materials. The country continues to suffer from serious electricity shortages.
Oil production and refining are developing most dynamically. Oil reserves are estimated to exceed 3 billion barrels. In 1999, construction of a 1,610 km oil pipeline was completed, connecting the South Sudanese Heglik field with a terminal on the Red Sea (Port Sudan). Annual oil production is approx. 13 million tons (2002). Some of the oil produced goes to a refinery on the outskirts of Khartoum. The extraction, export and refining of part of the oil allowed the government to satisfy the country's domestic needs for petroleum products and save up to $350 million, which were annually spent on imports. This also gave the government the opportunity to announce as early as mid. 2000 about reducing prices by 27% for gasoline and by 17% for gasoline and kerosene.
Chromium ore production is approx. 4 thousand tons (1996), gold 3700 kg. Iron ore reserves are estimated at more than 500 million tons.
Manufacturing industry (1999): flour - 532 thousand tons, sugar - 622 thousand, vegetable oil - 100 thousand, cement - 267 thousand tons, textiles - 35 million yards, shoes - 48 million pairs, cigarettes - 122 tons.
Electricity used in industry, agriculture and everyday life is produced at 12 thermal and 3 hydroelectric power plants. Average electricity consumption per capita is approx. 53 kWh. More than 80% of electricity is generated in power plants in the central region of Sudan. It became the core of a unified energy system connecting all hydroelectric power stations at the Sennar Dam, Khashm El Gerb and Er Roseires with transformer substations in the provinces of Khartoum, Upper Nile and North. The central region accounts for more than 80% of total energy consumption. The share of southern and western regions is 2%. Industry consumes 39% of all electricity produced, the public utility sector - 37%, the rest comes from agriculture, transport and other sectors of the economy. The share of the electric power industry in GDP is 3%. In accordance with the economic development program, it is planned to build an additional 10 dams on the Blue and White Nile, also on the Atbara River.
Sudan has significant land holdings. The area of cultivated land is 12.5 million hectares, but irrigated land accounts for only 1.9 million hectares (15%). Pastures occupy 56 million hectares, forests occupy 46.5 million hectares.
The main cash crop is cotton, mainly fine-fiber cotton. The main cotton-producing center is Gezira (80% of the harvest). The share of cotton in total exports is falling. Goes approx. 100 thousand tons (1998). Peanuts are also grown (4th place in Africa) - 800 thousand tons, sesame - 165 thousand, wheat - 597 thousand, sorghum - 4891 thousand tons, as well as millet, beans, barley, and corn. An important place in agricultural production is occupied by fruit crops (mangoes, oranges, grapefruits, lemons, bananas, etc.), melons (watermelons, melons) and vegetables (onions, tomatoes, etc.).
Livestock farming is the second traditional branch of agriculture. Sudan has the richest livestock resources: productive pastures, significant areas, and a large number of livestock. Number of cattle - 20-22.5 million heads, sheep - 19-20 million, goats - 13.5-14 million, camels - 3 million, donkeys - 650-670 thousand, horses - 20-21 thousand. Number poultry approx. 30 million
Timber reserves are estimated at 1.3 billion m3 in wild forests and 8 million m3 in forest parks. Logging (1997, thousand m3): saw logs, plywood and sleeper logs - 110, other industrial wood - 2092, fuel wood -14,111, total: 16,313; gum arabic - 25.
Sudan has significant fisheries resources. The sources are the Nile and its tributaries, various reservoirs and the Red Sea. The catch was (thousand tons in live weight, 1997): Nile fish - 11, other freshwater - 31, sea - 5, inland waters - 42, Red Sea - 5.
The length of railways is 5503 km. The main export-import highway connects Khartoum and Port Sudan - 787 km. The Wadi Halfa - Atbara - Khartoum - El Obeid, El Obeid - Nyala, Babanusa - Wau branches are important.
Road transport provides 60% of domestic transportation. The total length of roads is 48 thousand km, but 2335 km are paved. The most important highway is Khartoum - Port Sudan (1186 km).
Sudan's only seaport, Port Sudan, was founded back in 1912. Its throughput capacity is 8 million tons per year. Work is underway to increase its throughput capacity to 13 million tons. In 1999, a cargo terminal was built for oil exports between Port Sudan and the abandoned port of Suakin. With the financial assistance of European countries, work is underway to create a new port of Suakin, 60 km from Port Sudan, with a capacity of up to 1.5 million tons of cargo per year. Merchant fleet 19 vessels with a carrying capacity of 43,078 tons.
River transport has not received much development. The length of Sudan's navigation route is 4068 km, of which 1723 km are open to navigation all year round. Both the White Nile and the Blue Nile are used for shipping. The White Nile is the most important route connecting the northern and central regions of the country with the southern ones. The Blue Nile is of lesser importance, since transportation over long distances along it is impossible. In Sudan, there is a joint Sudanese-Egyptian enterprise engaged in transportation on Lake Nasser between the cities of Wadi Halfa in Sudan and Aswan in Egypt.
The state airline Sudan Air-Ace was transformed in 1993 into a joint-stock company with the participation of local and foreign private capital. The company has at its disposal 3 passenger and 7 cargo aircraft. In 1999, the intention to build a new international airport 20 km east of Khartoum with two runways was announced.
Sudan's telephone network consists of 99 thousand lines. In 1997, a mobile telephone network was introduced for the province of Khartoum. Subsequently, other provinces will join it. Since February 1999, a project has been underway to increase the number of subscribers of the Sudanese telephone network from 180 thousand to 1.5 million by 2003. Up to 70% of telephone lines operate in the capital, the rest in 10 large cities.
In 2001, for the second year in a row, the foreign trade balance had a surplus of $50 million. Exports: $1.23 billion, imports: $1.18 billion. Commodity structure of exports (%): crude oil - 70, sesame - 8, gasoline - 4.5, gold - 4, live cattle - 4, cotton - 3, gum arabic and sugar. Import structure (%): machines and equipment - 28, manufactured goods - 20, medicines - 7, wheat - 9.7, petroleum products - 6. Oil production, refining and export completely changed the situation with Sudan's foreign trade. If previously the main export product was agricultural products, now it is oil and petroleum products. Sudanese oil supplies cover 80% of Ethiopia's needs for petroleum products.
Main trading partners: Saudi Arabia, Great Britain, Egypt, France, China, Japan, Italy, Germany, Ethiopia.
The issue of Sudan's accession to the WTO is being considered.
In 2000, the Sudanese government began implementing banking reform to strengthen the country's economic system. The state's tax policy is also undergoing changes.
Sudan is in arrears in repaying external loans, and several years ago there was a question of suspending its membership in the IMF. In 1993, the Fund deprived Sudan of its voting rights (this was the first time such an action had been taken against a Fund member country). However, after the start of oil exports, Sudan resumed regular debt service payments to the World Bank, resulting in normalization of its relations with the IMF in August 2000. Sudan's total external debt is $20 billion.
To overcome financial difficulties, the Central Bank of Sudan announced measures designed to stimulate development, reduce inflation, stabilize the exchange rate, and support macroeconomic liberalization. According to the developed program for 1998-2003, GDP should increase by 6%, and inflation should drop to 5%.
The IMF lifted sanctions against Sudan that had been in place for 9 years, as the country managed to reduce its debt and carry out economic reforms. In May 2000, Sudan introduced a value added tax (VAT), amounting to 10% of the value of transactions on goods and services, and capital goods were excluded from import obligations. The Sudanese government also plans to expand the program of privatization of agricultural enterprises, transport, and communications.
The rate of economic growth in 2001 was 6.7% (in 2000 8.3%). This was achieved due to the rapid development of the oil industry. The 2000 budget provides for revenue of 298 billion. din., expenses - 335 billion court. din.
Science and culture of Sudan
Sudan is a country of rich and distinctive culture. The ancestors of the Sudanese (Meroites) are considered the creators of alphabetic writing. However, in modern Sudan there is a question of eliminating illiteracy. The program adopted in this regard after independence made it possible to reduce illiteracy from 88% in 1956 (79% among men and 97.3% among women) to 49.4% in 1993 (35.6 and 62.5%, respectively). However, the country's illiteracy rate remains one of the highest in the world, with Sudan having the 10th highest number of illiterate people.
Primary education for children under 13 years of age is free. Secondary education for children over 14 years of age lasts 3 years. Sudan's higher education system includes more than 30 higher education institutions, incl. 12 universities, 10 institutes. The University of Khartoum was founded in 1956, the University of the Two Niles - in 1993, the University of Juba - in 1977, the Gezira University - in 1978, the Islamic University of Omdurman - in 1912. A significant number of Sudanese are studying in other countries (Egypt, Syria, Germany, USA, UK, RF, Ukraine, etc.).
Contemporary Sudanese literature is young. The spirit of the national liberation movement in the 1st quarter of the 20th century. reflected in the works of revolutionary romanticism. With the end of World War II, the autobiographical genre appeared in Sudanese literature. Sudanese poetry of the post-war period is distinguished by revolutionary-democratic pathos, and the realistic direction is gaining strength. A characteristic feature of Sudanese literature of the 1950-60s. becomes topical, attention is drawn to everyday life, to issues of life of the middle and lower strata, the peasantry, the position of women in the family and in the Muslim world. In the 1970s such famous Sudanese prose writers as al-Tayib Salih, Ibrahim Hardello, Isa Hilwa, Ayyub al-Khal, Nabil Ghali and others appeared. The literature of the peoples of the South developed only after Sudan gained independence. To the beginning 21st century Sudanese literature has gone from overcoming the inertia of traditional Arabic literature through a passion for sentimentalism and romanticism to mastering the method of critical realism and the techniques of European modernism.
The patterns of development characteristic of Arab-Sudanese and South Sudanese literature can be traced both in the musical culture and in the visual arts of Sudan.
SUDAN
Republic of Sudan, a state in northeast Africa. It borders on Egypt in the north, Ethiopia and Eritrea in the east, Kenya, Uganda and the Democratic Republic of Congo in the south, the Central African Republic and Chad in the southwest and west, and Libya in the northwest. In the northeast it is washed by the Red Sea. The country's territory is part of the vast natural region of Sudan, which stretches from the Sahara Desert to the tropical rainforests of Central and West Africa. In terms of its area (2.5 million sq. km), Sudan is the largest state on the African continent. In 1998, the country's population was 33 million people, with 20% of the population living in cities. About 10% lead a nomadic lifestyle, and 70% live in rural areas. Vast desert areas in the north of the country are completely uninhabited. The territories that became part of modern Sudan were first united in the 19th century, and the current state borders were established in 1898. On January 1, 1956, the independence of Sudan was proclaimed. The capital of the country is Khartoum.
Sudan. The capital is Khartoum. Population - 33 million people (1998). Population density - 13 people per 1 sq. km. Urban population - 20%, rural - 80%. Area - 2.5 million square meters. km. The highest point is Mount Kinyeti (3187 m). The official language is Arabic. The main religion is Islam. Administrative division: 9 states, including the capital - the city of Khartoum. Currency: Sudanese pound = 100 piastres. National holiday: Independence Day - January 1. National anthem: "Hail Republic of Sudan."
Nature. Surface structure. Most of Sudan's territory is a vast plateau with an average height of 460 m, with a general slope from south to north. Its central parts are almost flat, but the surface gradually rises in the western and eastern directions towards the higher parts of the plateau. To the south, along the border with Uganda, and to the east, along the border with Ethiopia and along the shores of the Red Sea, there are mountains. In the mountains bordering Uganda is the highest point of the country, Mount Kinyeti (3187 m).
The entire country is crossed from south to north by the Upper and Middle Nile river system. The White Nile, known in its upper reaches as Bahr el-Jebel (translated as “mountain Nile”), originates in Uganda. It spreads across the vast clay plain of the Sudd (Arabic for “barrier”), where the flow is slowed by the abundance of aquatic vegetation. From the west, the El Ghazal River flows into the White Nile, receiving the flow of numerous rivers draining the Nile-Congo watershed. From the east, the White Nile receives the Sobat tributary. The Blue Nile has its source in the mountains of Ethiopia, flows to the northwest and merges with the White Nile near Khartoum. Below, the river flows under the name Nile, receiving in the east, 320 km north of Khartoum, a tributary of the Atbara, which, like the Sobat, begins in the mountains of Ethiopia. The White Nile has a stable flow because it is fed from the lake. Victoria and other lakes in Uganda. The Sudd region also has a regulating effect on runoff. There is only one flood on the Blue Nile - after heavy summer rains in Ethiopia; at the beginning of the year the water level drops significantly. The Blue Nile and, to a lesser extent, the Atbara bring such a mass of flood water into the Nile that north of central Sudan the level of the Nile rises greatly in late summer. The minimum water level in the Nile is observed in winter.
In the Nile Valley, located in the desert zone, agriculture based on irrigating fields with flood waters developed over the centuries. Artificial irrigation structures are used to irrigate the lands below the city of El Gebelein in the White Nile Valley and below the city of Singa in the Blue Nile Valley. In this case, river water is pumped out by pumps, and then, under the influence of gravity, spreads across the fields. In the area of El Gezira (Arabic for “island”), which is a wedge-shaped plain with an area of approx. 2 million hectares between the White and Blue Nile south of Khartoum, the most important tract of irrigated land is concentrated. The waters of the Blue Nile, dammed by a large dam at Sennar, flow here; the total area of cultivated land there is 0.7 million hectares. Other large dams were built in the 1960s at Er Roseires on the Blue Nile and Khashm el Girbe on Atbara (southwest of Kassala). The lands irrigated by water abstraction above the Khashm el-Girba Dam are cultivated by peasants who moved from the Nile Valley region bordering Egypt after it was flooded by the Nasser Reservoir as a result of the construction of the Aswan High Dam.
West of the river The White Nile stretches over the vast undulating Kordofan plateau, 300-600 m above sea level. In the extreme west of Sudan there is the Darfur plateau with an altitude of 1500 to 3000 m (the highest point is Mount Marra, 3088 m). Between the Kordofan plateau and the Darfur plateau there are a number of isolated massifs with heights ranging from 750 to 1000 m. To the north of them and to the east and southeast of Darfur there is a large massif of fixed sand dunes. In the far northwest, the moving dunes of the Libyan Desert extend into Sudan.
East of the Nile Valley the surface rises, forming the plateau of the Nubian Desert and the mountains fringing the Red Sea coast. The highest point of Mount Oda reaches 2259 m, some peaks exceed 1500 m. The mountains drop steeply to a narrow sandy coastal plain scorched by the heat, 15 to 30 km wide. The coast is bordered by coral reefs and small islands, but only a few places have bays suitable for building ports.
Climate. The amount of precipitation and the duration of the wet season decrease from south to north. The far south receives more than 1,500 mm of rainfall over nine months. Further north there is a savannah with alternating wet and dry seasons, which gives way to semiarid and finally exclusively arid conditions. In the south, the weather is hot all year round, and in the north, hot summers give way to moderately warm winters. In Juba in the south of the country, the average annual rainfall exceeds 970 mm, and most of it falls from April to October. Average temperatures range from 26°C in the wet months (July-August) to 29°C in the dry months (February-March). Throughout the year, daytime temperatures reach 30-37°C.
Khartoum, in northern semi-arid central Sudan, has an annual rainfall of just 150 mm, most of which falls in the form of downpours between July and September. Average temperatures range from 23°C in January to 34°C in early June. At the beginning of summer, daytime temperatures often exceed 43°C.
The far north of Sudan receives almost no rainfall: in some years, several showers bring from 13 to 25 mm. Average temperatures range from 16°C in January to 33°C in June - August. Maximum summer daytime temperatures sometimes reach 43-49° C.
The coastal zone is influenced by warm sea waters. In Port Sudan, average temperatures range from 23°C in February to 35°C in August. A small amount of precipitation falls from October to January and in July-August, but the total annual amount does not exceed 100 mm. Moreover, the air is constantly humid and cool at night. With hot, humid days and muggy nights throughout most of the year, the coastal climate is considered one of the most unfavorable in the world.
Flora. Sudan's flora ranges from tropical rainforests in the south to deserts in the north. Six major vegetation zones are represented. Tropical rainforests grow near the southern border of the country. In the southwest, where annual precipitation exceeds 1000 mm, tropical woodlands and tall grasses are common. The most valuable tree species are Senegalese Kaya (Khaya senegalensis) and Isoberlinia doka. Slash-and-burn agriculture is widely practiced. Tree growth is hampered by fires during the dry season. The zone of the savanna proper (precipitation amount from 500 to 1000 mm) is characterized by the development of tall grass, as well as acacias and other trees, which is why the term “acacia-tall grass savanna” is used. However, significant areas that are annually flooded during floods are generally devoid of woody vegetation and represent tall grass plains used for grazing. Papyrus and other marsh plants grow in limited areas located in a zone of constant flooding. Central Sudan (precipitation total 300 to 500 mm) is dominated by low-grass savanna with scattered acacias. Most of the territory is used for grazing, and part of the acacia trees are cut down for fuel. In this zone, as well as in savannas in general, the well-watered banks of the White and Blue Nile are overgrown with thorny open forests with acacias (Acacia arabica) and other trees used as timber and for fuel. Further to the north (precipitation total from 50 to 300 mm) the vegetation is represented by scrub desert, where acacias grow, which are eaten by camels, sheep and goats. Gum arabic is extracted from the Senegal acacia (Acacia senegal), which is one of Sudan's important exports. In the far north there is less than 50 mm of precipitation per year. The vegetation cover is extremely sparse and, with the exception of the Nile Valley, the area is almost uninhabited.
Fauna. In the south of the country, the forests and savannah woodlands are home to a variety of animals, including elephant, buffalo, zebra, white and black rhinoceros, giraffe, lion, forest pig, chimpanzee, leopard, cheetah, hyena and many species of antelope: eland, great and small kudu, bush duiker, horse antelope, etc. Along the watercourses in the south there are hippopotamus and crocodile, as well as tropical birds such as flamingos, secretary, various species of storks, including marabou. During the Northern Hemisphere winter, European migratory birds cross the Sahara on their way to Northern Sudan, especially along the Nile Valley, and migrants from South Africa appear in the Southern Hemisphere winter. Monkeys, small birds, snakes and insects complete the fauna diversity. In drier savannas and deserts, gazelles are found in places. The mountains in the west of Central Sudan are inhabited by oryx and addax antelopes, and in the northeast - Nubian ibex and wild ass (in the mountains stretching along the Red Sea coast).
POPULATION
Ethnogenesis and language. The population of ancient northern Sudan underwent radical changes in the Middle Ages as a result of frequent migrations of Arab nomads and their marriages with the local population. In the north, Islam is the dominant religion and Arabic is the main language of communication; The Arab roots of the population are generally recognized. Widespread in cities and other populated areas until the 20th century. The tribal system of organizing the social life of the population is dying out or being destroyed, but in conditions of a nomadic lifestyle it still serves as a unifying factor. The Arabic-speaking population is predominantly sedentary and confined to river valleys and areas where there is sufficient rainfall to grow crops. In addition, Arabic is spoken by the nomads who herd camels and sheep in the adjacent steppes, and there are also Arab pastoralists (Baggara) of southern Darfur and Kordofan. Some Muslim tribes in the north of the country do not speak Arabic, most notably the Cushitic-speaking Beja on the Red Sea coast, the Dongola and other Nubian peoples living in the Nile Valley and the Fur from Darfur.
Until the middle of the 19th century. territory of Sudan south of 12°N. was not invaded by Arabs or Arabized northern peoples. Until now, the local population has not accepted Islam. Ethnically, it belongs to several groups and speaks different languages. The main population groups of southern Sudan are the Nuba, who farm on the slopes of southern Kordofan; the Shilluk, who live in the White Nile Valley and are ruled by highly respected chiefs; numerous Dinka tribes who graze cattle on the plains east of the White Nile and in the El-Ghazal River valley, as well as Azande living in the mountains between the Nile and Congo rivers.
A small number of foreigners live in Sudan. Greeks and to a lesser extent Armenians, Indians and Yemenis control much of the city's retail trade. Muslim migrants from countries to the west of Sudan, primarily from Nigeria, make up the main workforce on the cotton plantations in El Gezira (between the White and Blue Nile). In the sphere of foreign trade, technology and higher education, the role of Europeans (mainly the British) is great, but they rarely live in the country permanently. The official language is Arabic; English is quite widely spoken; the educated part of the population of the South sometimes uses it as a means of interethnic communication.
Religion. Although all Arab settlers were Muslims, the introduction of Islamic culture into northern Sudan, dating back to the 15th to 17th centuries, was due to the efforts of Muslim missionaries and Sudanese who studied in Egypt or Arabia. These people were members of religious orders (tariqa), and the Sudanese version of Islam was characterized by the devotion of ordinary Muslims to the head of the order and adherence to an ascetic lifestyle. At the beginning of the 19th century. A new religious movement, Khatmiya, was formed, which still retains the influence of the descendants of its founder Mirgani. During the period of Turkish-Egyptian rule in the 19th century. Contacts between Sudanese and the more orthodox and sophisticated Egyptian Islam intensified. In 1881, the messianic movement of the Sudanese religious reformer Muhammad Ahmed began, who declared himself the Mahdi (the messiah heralding the imminent coming of the prophet) and called for the struggle for the restoration of true Islam. His followers began to be called Ansars (after the name of the dervish order they created). In today's Sudan, it is Ansar and Khatmiyya that are the most influential religious sects, Ansar predominates in the western part of the country and in areas along the banks of the White Nile, Khatmiyya - in the north and east of the country. Generally, both sects play an important role in the political life of Sudan.
The arrival of the Arabs gradually eliminated the influence of Christianity, the religion of medieval Nubia, the state in the Nile Valley. In the 19th century Several Catholic missions still operated in Sudan, which carried out religious propaganda among the pagan population without much success. During the period of the Anglo-Egyptian condominium (1899-1955), in accordance with the orders of the English administration, the activities of Christian religious missions were allowed only in the southern part of the country, and Catholic and Protestant missionaries operated in strictly defined areas. In 1964, the Sudanese government expelled all foreign missionaries from the country. Although this decision posed a serious threat to the life of local Christian churches, since it made it difficult for new clergy to arrive and gave new impetus to the Islamization of the southern regions, by this time Christianity in the south had already taken such deep roots that this allowed it not only to survive, but also to strengthen under support from local authorities.
Cities. A fairly dense conurbation, including Khartoum, Omdurman and North Khartoum, formed at the confluence of the Blue and White Nile. All these three cities are very different from one another. Khartoum was created in the 19th century. as the administrative center of the Turkish-Egyptian administration and retained this function during the period of the Anglo-Egyptian condominium. Khartoum is the most European city, different from other cities in Sudan. Omdurman, the former capital of the Mahdist state, despite some modernization, still retains a typical Sudanese appearance. Northern Khartoum, which arose in the 20th century. as the terminal point of the railway running from the north, it is largely associated with the service of this road and the river port. In 1998, the total population of Khartoum, North Khartoum and Omdurman was approx. 4 million people, a good half of which were refugees who fled the southern regions because of the war, and residents of other regions who wanted to improve their financial situation. The development of a network of modern communications owes its appearance to such cities as Atbara (85 thousand inhabitants in 1998), located at the intersection of routes from the north and from the Red Sea coast, Kosti (100 thousand), which grew up at the intersection of the White Nile with the railway, and Port Sudan (310 thousand) on the Red Sea coast. In terms of their importance, they replaced the ancient center of the caravan routes of Berber, the former river pier of Ed-Dueim and the almost abandoned seaport of Suakin, which played an important role during the time of Turkish rule. Other cities in the country combine administrative and economic functions; Thus, Wad Medani (230 thousand inhabitants in 1998) is the center of the cotton-growing region of El Gezira; El Obeid (250 thousand) is the main market for gum arabic and Kassala (250 thousand, 1998) for cotton growing. All these cities are also local administrative centers. In the southern part of the country, cities arose in the 20th century. as administrative centers, the largest of them is Juba (20 thousand inhabitants in 1998).
Voluntary associations. The oldest voluntary associations in northern Sudan are Muslim religious orders, some of which date back to the 15th and 16th centuries. Some of them are branches of religious brotherhoods spread throughout the Muslim world, others are purely local entities. Muslim spiritual orders are based on numerous local cells and are controlled by a hierarchy of spiritual leaders who are subordinate to the supreme sheikh. Although the Ansar and Khatmiya sects, led respectively by the Mirghani and Mahdi families, are not strictly spiritual orders, they are organized on the same principles and play a similar role in the life of Sudanese Muslim society. Initially, the orders were an association of zealous followers of Allah who, through collective prayers under the guidance of those familiar with secret knowledge, sought to find a mystical path to penetration into Islam. Currently, they are the bearers of a kind of emotional “revival” folk religion, which is perceived by more educated or orthodox Sudanese with a certain degree of mistrust and skepticism.
Strengthening contacts with Egypt and Western countries led to the emergence of a number of associations characteristic of the countries of the Middle East and Europe, in particular, literary and sports clubs, cooperatives and trade unions. Such associations began to be created in the last years of the existence of the condominium, and they were based on political rather than economic and social factors.
GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS
Government. Since the unification in the 19th century. The regions that make up the current territory of Sudan maintain traditions of an authoritarian, centralized and bureaucratic method of governing the country. In practice, this system is undergoing changes due to a number of factors specific to Sudan: the presence of a vast territory without adequate means of communication, the diversity of the ethnic composition of the population and persistent inter-tribal hostility. During the period of Turkish-Egyptian rule, the top of the administrative apparatus was formed from among the subjects of the Ottoman Empire, mainly Egyptians. After the formation of the Mahdist state, key positions in government passed to northern Sudanese from the Nile regions, and during the reign of Caliph Abdullahi (1885-1898) to his fellow Baggara tribesmen. During the existence of the condominium, initially the highest positions were occupied by the British, but then the number of Sudanese officials gradually increased. English officials exercised control over the rural areas of the country through a system of traditional authorities and tribal chiefs. After independence was won, the northern Sudanese were invariably at the helm of power.
On the eve of gaining independence in 1956, the country had already established a system of state power in the form of an elected parliament and a cabinet of ministers headed by a prime minister. The first step was the formation of the Northern Sudan Advisory Council in 1944. In 1948, followed by the creation of the Legislative Assembly, which included representatives of both northern and southern regions, and in 1954 - the first bicameral parliament in the history of the country, most of the deputies of which were elected directly elections.
During the condominium period, all power was concentrated in the hands of the governor-general, under whom a council of high-ranking English officials functioned since 1910. In 1948, this body was replaced by the Executive Council, which included Sudanese ministers. With the creation of parliament, the governor general's executive powers were transferred almost entirely to a Sudanese cabinet of ministers, answerable to the legislature. With the declaration of independence, the remaining power of the Governor General was transferred to the High Commission, which consisted of five Sudanese.
After the military coup in November 1958, the constitution was suspended and the activities of parliament and political organizations were prohibited. As a result of popular uprisings, civilian rule was restored in the country in October 1964, and parliament resumed its work in 1965. But in May 1969, a military coup occurred again, the constitution and parliament were suspended, and political organizations were dissolved. Consisting of ten members, the Revolutionary Council, led by Jafar al-Nimeiri, assumed the functions of the highest authority. In 1972, al-Nimeiry dissolved the Revolutionary Council and in 1973 promulgated a constitution that provided for the restoration of the presidency with broad powers and the creation of people's councils. In 1985, al-Nimeiry's government was overthrown in a new military coup, and power passed to another military council.
After the 1986 elections, parliamentary democracy was restored in Sudan, and the government was headed by Sadiq al-Mahdi. The government has made several unsuccessful attempts to negotiate an end to the civil war in southern Sudan. The failures of Sadiq al-Mahdi in this direction, as well as the worsening economic situation in the country, predetermined the success of the military coup in June 1989 led by Umar Hassan al-Bashir. As head of the Revolutionary Guiding Council for National Salvation, al-Bashir abolished the constitution, as well as the National Assembly, trade unions and all political organizations. The actions of the new leadership of Sudan enjoyed unconditional support from the National Islamic Front. In 1993, the governing Revolutionary Council was replaced by a civilian government, which was still headed by al-Bashir and which continued to be influenced by Islamic fundamentalists. In the 1996 presidential elections, al-Bashir won an unconditional victory. That same year, elections to the National Assembly were held. In a situation where all other political organizations were banned, candidates from the National Islamic Front easily won. One of the achievements of the legislative body was the preparation of the text of a new constitution, which was adopted in 1998.
Political parties. Before the military coup of 1989, the leading political parties in Sudan were represented by the Unionist Democratic Party, the Sudanese Communist Party, the Al-Umma Party, the traditional Mahdist party created in 1945, and a number of relatively few parties in the South of Sudan. The most influential of them were the Sudan People's Liberation Movement (SPLM) and its military wing, the Sudan People's Liberation Army (SPLA). This group, led by John Garang de Mabior, arose in 1983 in the wake of resistance to the policies of al-Nimeiri, aimed at introducing a new administrative division in the south of the country. For many years, SPLM activities were limited to South Sudan, but in 1995, in opposition to al-Bashir and the National Islamic Front, Garang, along with a number of political leaders from the North, formed a coalition called the National Democratic Union (NDU). It included such influential opposition political parties as Al-Umma and the Unionist Democratic Party. Other political groups in the South - the South Sudan Liberation Front and the South Sudan Defense Force, although they opposed the government in Khartoum, nevertheless refrained from joining the VAT. Traditionally, political organizations in Sudan have expressed personal loyalties and ambitions rather than political principles. The exception was the Sudanese Communist Party, created in 1944.
Judicial system. In 1983, al-Nimeiri replaced all existing legal laws with Muslim sharia laws based on the Koran. They included such punishments as cutting off hands and feet, as well as stoning. In 1986, Sharia law was repealed and a judicial system based on the Anglo-Indian civil code was temporarily restored. In 1991, there was a return to Islamic law, which caused discontent and resistance from mainly Christians, as well as the population of the southern regions of the country, who adhere to traditional local beliefs.
Armed forces. Until 1924, Sudanese troops were part of the Egyptian armed forces, then under the name Sudan Defense Forces and under the command of British officers they became purely Sudanese military units. In 1954, the British were dismissed from officer posts, and the country's armed forces received the name Sudanese Army. In 1998, Sudan had a military force of just over 100,000 and could quickly mobilize tens of thousands of members of the People's Defense Forces, a militia subordinate to the National Islamic Front. Sudan received modern types of weapons from Libya, Iraq and China.
Local authorities. After the Second World War, a process began to replace the English district commissioners, who had broad powers, with local councils with territorial rather than tribal jurisdiction. A system of appointing local government inspectors was introduced, to whom many of the administrative functions of district commissioners were transferred. The rights of provincial governors were also curtailed. After 1958, the military regime tried to strengthen the role of the provinces; for this purpose, provincial councils were created, which included elected and appointed members led by a centrally appointed head of the council. In addition, a local provincial executive body was formed, and each province had its own budget. But in practice, the work of the councils was extremely sluggish, and after the 1964 revolution they almost ceased to function. The resumption of the civil war in the 1980s and the National Islamic Front's desire to centralize the country in the 1990s led to a reduction in the power of local governments.
Foreign policy. In the period 1967-1971, significant aid came to Sudan from the USSR and Eastern European countries. Under President al-Nimeiry, ties with the West began to strengthen. The military coup of 1989 led to the establishment of close relations with Libya, which negatively affected relations with Western countries. After Iranian President Rafsanjani's visit to Sudan in December 1991, many Western and moderate Arab states curtailed their relations with Sudan because it was blocking with states professing Islamic fundamentalism. Sudan itself refused to receive assistance from the United States, saying that the Americans were using it to carry out espionage activities. The main area of activity in Sudan by international organizations, in particular the UN, during this period was the delivery of humanitarian food aid to the starving population of the southern regions of the country.
See below
SUDAN, Republic of Sudan (Gumhuriya al-Sudan), a state in northeast Africa. The area of Sudan is 2.5 million km2.
The population of Sudan is 34.2 million people (2004), mainly Sudanese (Arabs of Sudan), also Nubians and other peoples. The official language of Sudan is Arabic. The official religion is Islam.
Administrative division: 9 states. The capitals of Sudan are Khartoum (seat of government), Omdurman (seat of parliament). The head of state is the president. The legislative body of Sudan is the Parliament (Transitional National Council).
In the northeast, Sudan is washed by the waters of the Red Cape. Most of Sudan is a plateau with an altitude of 300-1500 m; in the west and south - the height of St. 3000 m. The highest point is the city of Kinyeti (3187 m).
The climate of Sudan is transitional from equatorial monsoon in the south to tropical, desert in the north. Average monthly temperatures range from 15 to 35 °C. Precipitation in the north is insignificant, in the south 1000-1400 mm per year. In the north there is semi-desert and desert, in the south there is savannah and tropical forests. The main rivers are the Nile with its tributaries the Sobat and the Blue Nile. National parks Boma, Jider, Southern (Southern), Nimule; several reserves.
In the 4th-3rd millennia BC. e. A culture similar to the contemporary culture of Egypt arose on the territory of Sudan. Since the 19th century BC e. There was an early class state of Kush, from the 8th century. BC e. - Meroitic kingdom; from 5th century n. e. The Christian states of Mukurra, Aloa, Nobatia, and Nubia arose. After the Arabs conquered Egypt (7th century), their migration to Sudan began. In the 16th century The Muslim states of Sennar, the Darfur Sultanate, etc. arose. In South Sudan, inhabited mainly by Negroid tribes, pre-feudal relations were maintained. In 1820-1822, the territory of Sudan was conquered by the Egyptian ruler Muhammad Ali. Since the 60s 19th century British penetration into Sudan began. During the Mahdist revolt (1881-98), a theocratic independent state emerged, led by the Mahdi of Sudan.
In 1899-1955 Sudan was a British colony (until 1951 it was legally an Anglo-Egyptian condominium). On January 1, 1956, Sudan became an independent state - the Republic of Sudan. In 1958-1964 dictatorial regime. As a result of the 1969 coup, the military, led by J. Nimeiri, came to power. In 1972, South Sudan received autonomous status. This ended the 17-year civil war. From the beginning In the 1980s, especially after the spread of Islamic law throughout the country (1983), the civil war resumed in the South. In 1985, the regime of J. Nimeiri fell. In 1986, a coalition government was formed headed by S. al-Mahdi (grandson of the Mahdi of Sudan), leader of the largest political party Umma (founded in 1945).
In 1989, a military coup took place, the temporary constitution of 1985 was suspended, and the parliament, government, parties and trade unions were dissolved. The Council of the Command of the Revolution of National Salvation (SCRNS) became the highest legislative and executive body. In 1993, SKRNS appointed a president and announced self-dissolution. The weak central government in Sudan was unable to control the entire country, which actually disintegrated into separate territories. In the province of Darfur, local African peoples rebelled against the central government and, since 2003, Arabized tribes were sent to pacify them. The conflict claimed approx. lives. 300 thousand people. With the mediation of the African Union, its settlement began in 2006.
Sudan is a backward agricultural country. Share in GDP (1989,%): agriculture 36, industry 8.2. The main export agricultural crop is cotton (mainly on irrigated lands). They cultivate sesame, peanuts, millet, sorghum, and date palms. Collection of gum arabic. Pasture farming. Extraction of chrome and manganese ores, salt (from sea water). Enterprises for processing agricultural raw materials. Metalworking, oil refining, cement and other industries. Electricity production 1.3 billion kWh (1991). The length (thousand km) of railways is 4.9, roads 22.5. The main seaport is Port Sudan. Export: approx. 90% of the cost is agricultural products. Main foreign trade partners: Great Britain, Germany, USA, Japan, China.
The monetary unit is the Sudanese dinar.