Carthage (Tunisia): location on the map, photos, ancient history, excursions and tourist reviews. Carthage (Tunisia): location on the map, photos, ancient history, excursions and tourist reviews Where lies Carthage 1922

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CARTHAGE, an ancient city (near modern Tunisia) and a state that existed in the 7th–2nd centuries. BC. in the western Mediterranean. Carthage (meaning "new city" in Phoenician) was founded by people from Phoenician Tire (traditional founding date 814 BC, actually founded somewhat later, perhaps c. 750 BC). The Romans called it Carthago, the Greeks called it Carchedon.

According to legend, Carthage was founded by Queen Elissa (Dido), who fled from Tire after her brother Pygmalion, the king of Tire, killed her husband Sychaeus in order to take possession of his wealth. Throughout the history of Carthage, the city's inhabitants were renowned for their business acumen. According to the legend of the city's founding, Dido, who was allowed to occupy as much land as an ox's hide would cover, took possession of a large area by cutting the hide into narrow strips. That is why the citadel erected at this place was called Birsa (which means “skin”).

Carthage was not the oldest of the Phoenician colonies. Long before him, Utica was founded somewhat to the north (traditional date - ca. 1100 BC). Probably around the same time, Hadrumet and Leptis, located on the east coast of Tunisia to the south, Hippo on the north coast and Lyx on the Atlantic coast of modern Morocco were founded.

Long before the founding of the Phoenician colonies, ships from Egypt, Mycenaean Greece and Crete plied the Mediterranean Sea. The political and military failures of these powers starting around 1200 BC. provided the Phoenicians with freedom of action in the Mediterranean Sea and a favorable opportunity to acquire skills in navigation and trade. From 1100 to 800 BC The Phoenicians virtually dominated the sea, where only rare Greek ships dared to go. The Phoenicians explored the lands in the west up to the Atlantic coast of Africa and Europe, which later came in handy for Carthage.

CITY AND POWER

Carthage owned fertile lands in the interior of the continent, it had an advantageous geographical position, which was conducive to trade, and also allowed it to control the waters between Africa and Sicily, preventing foreign ships from sailing further to the west.

Compared to many famous cities of antiquity, Punic (from Latin punicus or poenicus - Phoenician) Carthage is not so rich in finds, since in 146 BC. The Romans methodically destroyed the city, and intensive construction took place in Roman Carthage, founded on the same site in 44 BC. Based on the scanty evidence of ancient authors and their often unclear topographical indications, we know that the city of Carthage was surrounded by powerful walls with a length of approx. 30 km. Its population is unknown. The citadel was very strongly fortified. The city had a market square, a council building, a court and temples. The quarter, called Megara, had many vegetable gardens, orchards and winding canals. The ships entered the trading harbor through a narrow passage. For loading and unloading, up to 220 ships could be pulled ashore at the same time (ancient ships should have been kept on land if possible). Behind the trading harbor there was a military harbor and an arsenal.

System of government.

In terms of its government structure, Carthage was an oligarchy. Despite the fact that in their homeland, in Phenicia, power belonged to the kings and the founder of Carthage, according to legend, was Queen Dido, we know almost nothing about royal power here. Ancient authors, who mostly admired the structure of Carthage, compared it with the political system of Sparta and Rome. Power here belonged to the Senate, which was in charge of finances, foreign policy, declarations of war and peace, and also carried out the general conduct of the war. Executive power was vested in two elected magistrates, the suffetes (the Romans called them sufetes, which is the same position as the "shofetim", i.e. judges, in the Old Testament). Obviously, these were senators, and their duties were exclusively civilian, not involving control over the army. Together with the army commanders, they were elected by the people's assembly. The same positions were established in cities under the rule of Carthage. Although many aristocrats owned vast agricultural lands, land ownership was not the only basis for achieving high social status. Trade was considered a completely respectable occupation, and wealth obtained in this way was treated with respect. Nevertheless, some aristocrats from time to time actively opposed the dominance of merchants, such as Hanno the Great in the 3rd century. BC.

Regions and cities.

The agricultural areas in mainland Africa - the area inhabited by the Carthaginians themselves - roughly correspond to the territory of modern Tunisia, although other lands also fell under the city’s rule. When ancient authors speak of the numerous cities that were in the possession of Carthage, they undoubtedly mean ordinary villages. However, there were also real Phoenician colonies here - Utica, Leptis, Hadrumet, etc. Information about Carthage's relations with these cities and some Phoenician settlements in Africa or elsewhere is scarce. The cities of the Tunisian coast showed independence in their politics only in 149 BC, when it became obvious that Rome intended to destroy Carthage. Some of them then submitted to Rome. In general, Carthage was able (probably after 500 BC) to choose a political line, which was joined by the rest of the Phoenician cities both in Africa and on the other side of the Mediterranean.

The Carthaginian power was very extensive. In Africa, its easternmost city was more than 300 km east of Eia (modern Tripoli). Between it and the Atlantic Ocean the ruins of a number of ancient Phoenician and Carthaginian cities were discovered. Around 500 BC or a little later, the navigator Hanno led an expedition that founded several colonies on the Atlantic coast of Africa. He ventured far to the south and left a description of gorillas, tom-toms and other African sights rarely mentioned by ancient authors.

Colonies and trading posts were for the most part located approximately one day's sailing distance from each other. Usually they were located on islands near the coast, on capes, at the mouths of rivers, or in those places on the mainland of the country from where it was easy to reach the sea. For example, Leptis, located near modern Tripoli, in the Roman era served as the final coastal point of the great caravan route from the interior, from where merchants brought slaves and gold sand. This trade probably began early in Carthage's history.

The power included Malta and two neighboring islands. Carthage fought against the Sicilian Greeks for centuries, under its rule were Lilybaeum and other reliably fortified ports in the west of Sicily, as well as, at various periods, other areas on the island (it so happened that almost all of Sicily was in its hands, except Syracuse). Gradually, Carthage established control over the fertile regions of Sardinia, while the inhabitants of the mountainous regions of the island remained unconquered. Foreign merchants were prohibited from entering the island. At the beginning of the 5th century. BC. The Carthaginians began to explore Corsica. Carthaginian colonies and trading settlements also existed on the southern coast of Spain, while the Greeks gained a foothold on the eastern coast. Since arriving here in 237 BC. Hamilcar Barca and before Hannibal's campaign in Italy, great successes were achieved in subjugating the interior regions of Spain. Apparently, when creating its power scattered across different territories, Carthage did not set any goals other than establishing control over them in order to obtain the maximum possible profit.

CARTAGE CIVILIZATION

Agriculture.

The Carthaginians were skilled farmers. The most important grain crops were wheat and barley. Some grain was probably delivered from Sicily and Sardinia. Average quality wine was produced for sale. Fragments of ceramic containers found during archaeological excavations in Carthage indicate that the Carthaginians imported higher quality wines from Greece or the island of Rhodes. The Carthaginians were famous for their excessive addiction to wine; even special laws against drunkenness were adopted, for example, prohibiting the consumption of wine by soldiers. In North Africa, olive oil was produced in large quantities, although of low quality. Figs, pomegranates, almonds, date palms grew here, and ancient authors mention vegetables such as cabbage, peas and artichokes. Horses, mules, cows, sheep and goats were bred in Carthage. The Numidians, who lived to the west, in the territory of modern Algeria, preferred thoroughbred horses and were famous as riders. Apparently, the Carthaginians, who had strong trade ties with the Numidians, bought horses from them. Later, the gourmets of imperial Rome highly valued poultry from Africa.

Unlike Republican Rome, in Carthage small farmers did not form the backbone of society. Most of Carthage's African possessions were divided among wealthy Carthaginians, in whose large estates farming was carried out on a scientific basis. A certain Mago, who probably lived in the 3rd century. BC, wrote a guide to farming. After the fall of Carthage, the Roman Senate, wanting to attract wealthy people to restore production in some of its lands, ordered the translation of this manual into Latin. Passages from the work cited in Roman sources indicate that Mago used Greek agricultural manuals, but tried to adapt them to local conditions. He wrote about large farms and touched on all aspects of agricultural production. Probably local Berbers, and sometimes groups of slaves under the leadership of overseers, worked as tenants or sharecroppers. The emphasis was mainly on cash crops, vegetable oil and wine, but the nature of the area inevitably suggested specialization: the hillier areas were devoted to orchards, vineyards or pastures. There were also medium-sized peasant farms.

Craft.

Carthaginian artisans specialized in the production of cheap products, mostly reproducing Egyptian, Phoenician and Greek designs and intended for sale in the western Mediterranean, where Carthage captured all markets. The production of luxury goods, such as the vibrant purple dye commonly known as Tyrian purple, dates back to the later period of Roman rule in North Africa, but may be thought to have existed before the fall of Carthage. Purple slug, a sea snail containing this dye, was best collected in the fall and winter—the unseaworthy seasons. Permanent settlements were founded in Morocco and on the island of Djerba, in the best places for obtaining murex.

In accordance with Eastern traditions, the state was a slave owner, using slave labor in arsenals, shipyards or construction. Archaeologists have not found evidence that would indicate the presence of large private craft enterprises, whose products would be distributed in the Western market closed to outsiders, while many small workshops have been noted. It is often very difficult to distinguish among finds Carthaginian products from objects imported from Phenicia or Greece. Craftsmen were successful in reproducing simple items, and the Carthaginians do not seem to have been too keen on making anything other than copies.

Some Punic craftsmen were very skilled, especially in carpentry and metalwork. A Carthaginian carpenter could use cedar wood for work, the properties of which were known from ancient times by the craftsmen of Ancient Phenicia who worked with Lebanese cedar. Due to the constant need for ships, both carpenters and metal workers were invariably distinguished by a high level of skill. There is evidence of their skill in working iron and bronze. The amount of jewelry found during excavations is small, but it seems that these people were not inclined to place expensive objects in tombs to please the souls of the dead.

The largest of the handicraft industries, apparently, was the manufacture of ceramic products. The remains of workshops and pottery kilns filled with products intended for firing were discovered. Every Punic settlement in Africa produced pottery, which is found throughout the areas that were part of Carthage's sphere - Malta, Sicily, Sardinia and Spain. Carthaginian pottery is also found from time to time on the coast of France and Northern Italy - where the Greeks from Massalia (modern Marseille) occupied a dominant position in trade and where the Carthaginians were probably still allowed to trade.

Archaeological finds paint a picture of a stable production of simple pottery not only in Carthage itself, but also in many other Punic cities. These are bowls, vases, dishes, goblets, pot-bellied jugs for various purposes, called amphorae, water jugs and lamps. Research shows that their production existed from ancient times until the destruction of Carthage in 146 BC. Early products for the most part reproduced Phoenician designs, which in turn were often copies of Egyptian ones. It seems that in the 4th and 3rd centuries. BC. The Carthaginians especially valued Greek products, which was evident in the imitation of Greek pottery and sculpture and the presence of large quantities of Greek products from this period in materials from excavations in Carthage.

Trade policy.

The Carthaginians were especially successful in trade. Carthage can well be called a trading state, since its policies were largely guided by commercial considerations. Many of its colonies and trading settlements were undoubtedly founded for the purpose of expanding trade. It is known about some expeditions undertaken by the Carthaginian rulers, the reason for which was also the desire for wider trade relations. In a treaty concluded by Carthage in 508 BC. with the Roman Republic, which had just emerged after the expulsion of the Etruscan kings from Rome, it was stipulated that Roman ships could not sail into the western part of the sea, but they could use the harbor of Carthage. In the event of a forced landing elsewhere in Punic territory, they asked for official protection from the authorities and, after repairing the ship and replenishing food supplies, immediately set sail. Carthage agreed to recognize Rome's borders and respect its people as well as its allies.

The Carthaginians entered into agreements and, if necessary, made concessions. They also resorted to force to prevent rivals from entering the waters of the western Mediterranean, which they considered as their patrimony, with the exception of the coast of Gaul and the adjacent coasts of Spain and Italy. They also fought against piracy. The authorities maintained the complex structures of Carthage's trading harbor in good repair, as well as its military harbor, which was apparently open to foreign ships, but few sailors entered it.

It is striking that such a trading state as Carthage did not show due attention to coinage. Apparently, there was no own coin here until the 4th century. BC, when silver coins were issued which, if the surviving examples are considered typical, varied considerably in weight and quality. Perhaps the Carthaginians preferred to use the reliable silver coins of Athens and other states, and most transactions were carried out through direct barter.

Goods and trade routes.

Specific data on Carthage's trade items is surprisingly scant, although evidence of its trading interests is quite numerous. Typical of such evidence is Herodotus' story about how trade took place on the west coast of Africa. The Carthaginians landed at a certain place and laid out goods, after which they retired to their ships. Then local residents appeared and placed a certain amount of gold next to the goods. If there was enough of it, the Carthaginians took the gold and sailed away. Otherwise, they left it untouched and returned to the ships, and the natives brought more gold. What kind of goods these were is not mentioned in the story.

Apparently, the Carthaginians brought simple pottery for sale or exchange to those western regions where they had a monopoly, and also traded in amulets, jewelry, simple metal utensils and simple glassware. Some of them were produced in Carthage, some in the Punic colonies. According to some evidence, Punic traders offered wine, women and clothing to the natives of the Balearic Islands in exchange for slaves.

It can be assumed that they were engaged in extensive purchases of goods in other craft centers - Egypt, Phenicia, Greece, Southern Italy - and transported them to those areas where they enjoyed a monopoly. Punic traders were famous in the harbors of these craft centers. Finds of non-Carthaginian items during archaeological excavations of western settlements suggest that they were brought there on Punic ships.

Some references in Roman literature indicate that the Carthaginians brought various valuable goods to Italy, where ivory from Africa was highly valued. During the empire, huge quantities of wild animals were brought from Roman North Africa for games. Figs and honey are also mentioned.

It is believed that Carthaginian ships sailed the Atlantic Ocean to obtain tin from Cornwall. The Carthaginians themselves produced bronze and may have shipped some tin to other places where it was needed for similar production. Through their colonies in Spain, they sought to obtain silver and lead, which could be exchanged for the goods they brought. The ropes for Punic warships were made from esparto grass, native to Spain and North Africa. An important trade item, due to its high price, was the purple dye from scarlet. In many areas, traders purchased wild animal skins and leather and found markets to sell them.

As in later times, caravans from the south must have arrived at the ports of Leptis and Aea, as well as Gigtis, which lay somewhat to the west. They carried ostrich feathers and eggs, popular in ancient times, which served as decorations or bowls. In Carthage, they were painted with fierce faces and used, as they say, as masks to scare away demons. The caravans also brought ivory and slaves. But the most important cargo was gold sand from the Gold Coast or Guinea.

The Carthaginians imported some of the best goods for their own use. Some of the pottery found in Carthage came from Greece or from Campania in southern Italy, where it was produced by visiting Greeks. The characteristic handles of Rhodian amphorae found during excavations in Carthage show that wine was brought here from Rhodes. Surprisingly, no high-quality Attic ceramics are found here.

Language, art and religion.

We know almost nothing about the culture of the Carthaginians. The only lengthy texts in their language that have come down to us are contained in the play of Plautus Punic, where one of the characters, Hanno, delivers a monologue, apparently in genuine Punic dialect, followed by a significant part of it in Latin. In addition, there are many replicas of the same Gannon scattered throughout the play, also translated into Latin. Unfortunately, the scribes who did not understand the text distorted it. In addition, the Carthaginian language is known only by geographical names, technical terms, proper names and individual words given by Greek and Latin authors. In interpreting these passages, the similarity of the Punic language to the Hebrew language is very helpful.

The Carthaginians did not have their own artistic traditions. Apparently, in everything that can be classified as art, these people limited themselves to copying other people's ideas and techniques. In ceramics, jewelry and sculpture, they were content with imitation, and sometimes they copied not the best examples. As far as literature is concerned, we have no evidence of them producing any other works than purely practical ones, such as Mago's manual on agriculture, and one or two smaller compilations of texts in Greek. We are not aware of the presence in Carthage of anything that could be called “fine literature.”

Carthage had an official priesthood, temples and its own religious calendar. The main deities were Baal (Baal) - a Semitic god known from the Old Testament, and the goddess Tanit (Tinnit), the heavenly queen. Virgil in Aeneid called Juno a goddess who favored the Carthaginians, since he identified her with Tanit. The religion of the Carthaginians is characterized by human sacrifices, which were especially widely practiced during periods of disaster. The main thing in this religion is the belief in the effectiveness of cult practice for communicating with the invisible world. In light of this, it is especially surprising that in the 4th and 3rd centuries. BC. the Carthaginians actively joined the mystical Greek cult of Demeter and Persephone; in any case, the material traces of this cult are quite numerous.

RELATIONS WITH OTHER PEOPLES

The most ancient rivals of the Carthaginians were the Phoenician colonies in Africa, Utica and Hadrumet. It is unclear when and how they had to submit to Carthage: there is no written evidence of any wars.

Alliance with the Etruscans.

The Etruscans of northern Italy were both allies and trade rivals of Carthage. These enterprising sailors, traders and pirates dominated the 6th century. BC. over a large part of Italy. Their main area of ​​settlement was immediately north of Rome. They also owned Rome and the lands to the south - right up to the point where they came into conflict with the Greeks of southern Italy. Having concluded an alliance with the Etruscans, the Carthaginians in 535 BC. won a major naval victory over the Phocians - the Greeks who occupied Corsica.

The Etruscans occupied Corsica and held the island for about two generations. In 509 BC. the Romans expelled them from Rome and Latium. Soon after this, the Greeks of southern Italy, enlisting the support of the Sicilian Greeks, increased pressure on the Etruscans and in 474 BC. put an end to their power at sea, inflicting a crushing defeat on them near Qom in the Gulf of Naples. The Carthaginians moved to Corsica, already having a bridgehead in Sardinia.

The fight for Sicily.

Even before the major defeat of the Etruscans, Carthage had the opportunity to measure its strength with the Sicilian Greeks. The Punic cities in western Sicily, founded at least no later than Carthage, were forced to submit to him, like the cities of Africa. The rise of two powerful Greek tyrants, Gelon in Syracuse and Pheron in Acragantum, clearly foreshadowed to the Carthaginians that the Greeks would launch a powerful offensive against them to drive them out of Sicily, just as happened with the Etruscans in southern Italy. The Carthaginians accepted the challenge and for three years actively prepared to conquer all of eastern Sicily. They acted together with the Persians, who were preparing an invasion of Greece itself. According to later tradition (no doubt erroneous), the defeat of the Persians at Salamis and the equally decisive defeat of the Carthaginians in the land battle of Himera in Sicily occurred in 480 BC. in the same day. Having confirmed the worst fears of the Carthaginians, Feron and Gelon put up an irresistible force.

Much time passed before the Carthaginians again launched an attack on Sicily. After Syracuse successfully repelled an Athenian invasion (415–413 BC), utterly defeating them, it sought to subjugate other Greek cities in Sicily. Then these cities began to turn to Carthage for help, which was not slow to take advantage of this and sent a huge army to the island. The Carthaginians were close to capturing the entire eastern part of Sicily. At this moment, the famous Dionysius I came to power in Syracuse, who based the power of Syracuse on cruel tyranny and for forty years fought against the Carthaginians with varying success. At the end of hostilities in 367 BC. The Carthaginians again had to come to terms with the impossibility of establishing complete control over the island. The lawlessness and inhumanity committed by Dionysius were partly compensated by the assistance he provided to the Sicilian Greeks in their fight against Carthage. The persistent Carthaginians made another attempt to subjugate eastern Sicily during the tyranny of Dionysius the Younger, who succeeded his father. However, this again did not achieve its goal, and in 338 BC, after several years of fighting, which made it impossible to talk about the advantage of either side, peace was concluded.

There is an opinion that Alexander the Great saw his ultimate goal in establishing dominion over the West as well. After Alexander's return from the great campaign in India, shortly before his death, the Carthaginians, like other nations, sent an embassy to him, trying to find out his intentions. Perhaps Alexander's untimely death in 323 BC. saved Carthage from many troubles.

In 311 BC The Carthaginians made another attempt to occupy the eastern part of Sicily. A new tyrant, Agathocles, ruled in Syracuse. The Carthaginians had already besieged him in Syracuse and seemed to have the opportunity to capture this main stronghold of the Greeks, but Agathocles and his army sailed from the harbor and attacked the Carthaginian possessions in Africa, posing a threat to Carthage itself. From this moment until the death of Agathocles in 289 BC. The usual war continued with varying success.

In 278 BC The Greeks went on the offensive. The famous Greek commander Pyrrhus, king of Epirus, arrived in Italy to fight against the Romans on the side of the southern Italian Greeks. Having won two victories over the Romans with great damage to himself (“Pyrrhic victory”), he crossed over to Sicily. There he pushed back the Carthaginians and almost cleared the island of them, but in 276 BC. with his characteristic fatal inconstancy, he abandoned further struggle and returned to Italy, from where he was soon expelled by the Romans.

Wars with Rome.

The Carthaginians could hardly have foreseen that their city was destined to perish as a result of a series of military conflicts with Rome, known as the Punic Wars. The reason for the war was the episode with the Mamertines, Italian mercenaries who were in the service of Agathocles. In 288 BC part of them captured the Sicilian city of Messana (modern Messina), and when in 264 BC. Hieron II, the ruler of Syracuse, began to overcome them, they asked for help from Carthage and at the same time from Rome. For a variety of reasons, the Romans responded to the request and came into conflict with the Carthaginians.

The war lasted 24 years (264–241 BC). The Romans landed troops in Sicily and initially achieved some successes, but the army that landed in Africa under the command of Regulus was defeated near Carthage. After repeated failures at sea caused by storms, as well as a number of defeats on land (the Carthaginian army in Sicily was commanded by Hamilcar Barca), the Romans in 241 BC. won a naval battle off the Aegadian Islands, off the western coast of Sicily. The war brought enormous damage and losses to both sides, Carthage finally lost Sicily, and soon lost Sardinia and Corsica. In 240 BC a dangerous uprising of Carthaginian mercenaries dissatisfied with the delay of money broke out, which was suppressed only in 238 BC.

In 237 BC, just four years after the end of the first war, Hamilcar Barca went to Spain and began the conquest of the interior. To the Roman embassy, ​​who came with a question about his intentions, he replied that he was looking for a way to pay the indemnity to Rome as quickly as possible. The riches of Spain - flora and fauna, minerals, not to mention its inhabitants - could quickly compensate the Carthaginians for the loss of Sicily. However, conflict began again between the two powers, this time due to unrelenting pressure from Rome. In 218 BC Hannibal, the great Carthaginian commander, traveled overland from Spain through the Alps to Italy and defeated the Roman army, winning several brilliant victories, the most important of which took place in 216 BC. at the Battle of Cannae. Nevertheless, Rome did not ask for peace. On the contrary, he recruited new troops and, after several years of confrontation in Italy, transferred the fighting to North Africa, where he achieved victory at the Battle of Zama (202 BC).

Carthage lost Spain and finally lost its position as a state capable of challenging Rome. However, the Romans feared the revival of Carthage. They say that Cato the Elder ended each of his speeches in the Senate with the words “Delenda est Carthago” - “Carthage must be destroyed.” In 149 BC Rome's exorbitant demands forced the weakened but still wealthy North African state into a third war. After three years of heroic resistance, the city fell. The Romans razed it to the ground, sold the surviving inhabitants into slavery and sprinkled the soil with salt. However, five centuries later, Punic was still spoken in some rural areas of North Africa, and many of the people who lived there probably had Punic blood in their veins. Carthage was rebuilt in 44 BC. and turned into one of the major cities of the Roman Empire, but the Carthaginian state ceased to exist.

ROMAN CARTHAGE

Julius Caesar, who had a practical bent, ordered the founding of a new Carthage, since he considered it pointless to leave such an advantageous place in many respects unused. In 44 BC, 102 years after its destruction, the city began a new life. From the very beginning it prospered as the administrative center and port of an area with rich agricultural production. This period of Carthage's history lasted almost 750 years.

Carthage became the main city of the Roman provinces in North Africa and the third (after Rome and Alexandria) city in the empire. It served as the residence of the proconsul of the province of Africa, which, in the minds of the Romans, more or less coincided with the ancient Carthaginian territory. The administration of the imperial land holdings, which made up a significant part of the province, was also located here.

Many famous Romans are associated with Carthage and its surroundings. The writer and philosopher Apuleius studied in Carthage as a youth, and later achieved such fame there for his Greek and Latin speeches that statues were erected in his honor. A native of North Africa was Marcus Cornelius Fronto, tutor of Emperor Marcus Aurelius, as well as Emperor Septimius Severus.

The ancient Punic religion survived in Romanized form, and the goddess Tanit was worshiped as Juno the Celestial, and the image of Baal merged with Cronus (Saturn). However, it was North Africa that became the stronghold of the Christian faith, and Carthage gained prominence in the early history of Christianity and was the site of a number of important church councils. In the 3rd century. The Carthaginian bishop was Cyprian, and Tertullian spent most of his life here. The city was considered one of the largest centers of Latin learning in the empire; St. Augustine in his Confessions gives us several vivid sketches of the life of students who attended the rhetoric school of Carthage at the end of the 4th century.

However, Carthage remained only a major urban center and had no political significance. Do we hear stories about the public executions of Christians, do we read about Tertullian’s furious attacks on noble Carthaginian women who came to church in magnificent secular attire, or do we meet references to some outstanding personalities who found themselves in Carthage at important moments in history, above the level of a large provincial city he never rises again. For some time here was the capital of the Vandals (429–533 AD), who, like pirates once, set sail from the harbor that dominated the Mediterranean straits. This area was then conquered by the Byzantines, who held it until Carthage fell to the Arabs in 697.



"Carthage must be destroyed" (Latin Carthago delenda est, Carthaginem delendam esse) - a Latin catchphrase meaning an insistent call to fight an enemy or obstacle. In a broader sense, it is a constant return to the same issue, regardless of the general topic of discussion.

Carthage (Phoenix: Qart Hadasht, Latin: Carthago, Arabic: قرطاج, Carthage, French: Carthage, ancient Greek: Καρχηδών) is an ancient city in Tunisia, near the capital of the country - the city of Tunis, as part of the capital vilayet of Tunis.

The name Qart Hadasht (in Punic notation without the vowels Qrthdst) is translated from Phoenician as “new city”.

Throughout its history, Carthage was the capital of the Phoenician-founded state of Carthage, one of the largest powers in the Mediterranean. After the Punic Wars, Carthage was taken and destroyed by the Romans, but then rebuilt and became the most important city of the Roman Empire in the province of Africa, a major cultural and then early Christian church center. Then captured by the Vandals and was the capital of the Vandal Kingdom. But after the Arab conquest it fell into decline again.

Currently, Carthage is a suburb of the Tunisian capital, in which the presidential residence and the University of Carthage are located.

In 1831, a society for the study of Carthage was opened in Paris. Since 1874, excavations at Carthage have been carried out under the direction of the French Academy of Inscriptions. Since 1973, research on Carthage has been carried out under the auspices of UNESCO.

Carthaginian state

Carthage founded in 814 BC e. colonists from the Phoenician city of Tyre. After the fall of Phoenician influence, Carthage re-subordinated the former Phoenician colonies and turned into the capital of the largest state in the Western Mediterranean. By the 3rd century BC. e. The Carthaginian state subjugates Southern Spain, North Africa, western Sicily, Sardinia, and Corsica. After a series of wars against Rome (Punic Wars), it lost its conquests and was destroyed in 146 BC. e., its territory was turned into a province of Africa.

Location

Carthage was founded on a promontory with entrances to the sea in the north and south. The city's location made it a leader in Mediterranean maritime trade. All ships crossing the sea inevitably passed between Sicily and the coast of Tunisia.

Two large artificial harbors were dug within the city: one for the navy, capable of accommodating 220 warships, the other for commercial trade. On the isthmus that separated the harbors, a huge tower was built, surrounded by a wall.

Roman era

Julius Caesar proposed to found a Roman colony on the site of the destruction of Carthage (it was founded after his death). Thanks to its convenient location on trade routes, the city soon grew again and became the capital of the Roman province of Africa, which included the lands of what is now northern Tunisia.

After Rome

During the Great Migration and the collapse of the Western Roman Empire North Africa was captured by Vandals and Alans who made Carthage the capital of their state. This state lasted until 534, when the commanders of the Eastern Roman emperor Justinian I returned the African lands to the empire. Carthage became the capital of the Carthaginian Exarchate.

A fall

After the conquest of North Africa Arabs The city of Kairouan, founded by them in 670, became the new center of the Ifriqiya region, and Carthage quickly faded away.

Carthage was founded in 814 BC. e. colonists from the Phoenician city of Tire. After the fall of Phoenician influence in the Western Mediterranean, Carthage reassigned the former Phoenician colonies. By the 3rd century BC. e. it becomes the largest state in the western Mediterranean, subjugating Southern Spain, North Africa, Sicily, Sardinia, and Corsica. After a series of wars against Rome, it lost its conquests and was destroyed in 146 BC. e., its territory was turned into the province of Africa. Julius Caesar proposed to found a colony in its place (it was founded after his death). After the conquest of North Africa by the Byzantine emperor Justinian, Carthage was the capital of the Carthaginian Exarchate. It finally lost its name after being conquered by the Arabs.

Location

Carthage is located on a promontory with entrances to the sea in the north and south. The city's location made it a leader in Mediterranean maritime trade. All ships crossing the sea inevitably passed between Sicily and the coast of Tunisia.

Two large artificial harbors were dug within the city: one for the navy, capable of accommodating 220 warships, the other for commercial trade. On the isthmus that separated the harbors, a huge tower was built, surrounded by a wall.

The length of the massive city walls was 37 kilometers, and the height in some places reached 12 meters. Most of the walls were located on the shore, which made the city impregnable from the sea.

The city had a huge cemetery, places of worship, markets, a municipality, towers, and a theater. It was divided into four equal residential areas. Approximately in the middle of the city stood a high citadel called Birsa. It was one of the largest cities in Hellenistic times (according to some estimates, only Alexandria was larger), and was among the largest cities of antiquity.

State structure

Carthage was ruled by the aristocracy. The highest body was the council of elders, headed by 10 (later 30) people. The People's Assembly also formally played a significant role, but in fact it was rarely addressed. Around 450 BC. e. In order to create a counterbalance to the desire of some clans (especially the Mago clan) to gain full control over the council, a council of judges was created. It consisted of 104 people and was initially supposed to judge the remaining officials after the expiration of their terms of office, but subsequently concentrated all power in its hands. The executive (and highest judicial) power was exercised by two suffets; they, like the council of elders, were elected annually by open purchase of votes (most likely, there were other officials, but information about this has not been preserved). The Council of 104 was not elected, but was appointed by special commissions - pentarchy, which themselves were replenished on the basis of belonging to one or another aristocratic family. The Council of Elders also elected the commander-in-chief - for an indefinite period and with the broadest powers. The performance of the duties of officials was not paid; in addition, there was a qualification of nobility. The democratic opposition only strengthened during the Punic Wars and did not have time to play almost any role in history. The whole system was highly corrupt, but colossal government revenues allowed the country to develop quite successfully.

According to Polybius (i.e. from the point of view of the Romans), decisions in Carthage were made by the people (plebs), and in Rome - by the best people, that is, the Senate. And this despite the fact that, according to many historians, Carthage was ruled by an Oligarchy.

Religion

Although the Phoenicians lived scattered throughout the Western Mediterranean, they were united by common beliefs. The Carthaginians inherited the Canaanite religion from their Phoenician ancestors. Every year for centuries, Carthage sent envoys to Tire to perform a sacrifice there in the temple of Melqart. In Carthage, the main deities were the pair Baal Hammon, whose name means “fire-master,” and Tanit, identified with Astarte.

The most notorious feature of Carthage's religion was child sacrifice. According to Diodorus Siculus, in 310 BC. e., during the attack on the city, in order to pacify Baal Hammon, the Carthaginians sacrificed more than 200 children from noble families. The Encyclopedia of Religion states: “The sacrifice of an innocent child as a sacrifice of atonement was the greatest act of propitiation of the gods. Apparently, this act was intended to ensure the welfare of both the family and the community.”

In 1921, archaeologists discovered a site where several rows of urns were found containing the charred remains of both animals (they were sacrificed instead of people) and small children. The place was called Tophet. The burials were located under steles on which requests were written that accompanied the sacrifices. It is estimated that the site contains the remains of more than 20,000 children sacrificed in just 200 years. Today, some revisionists argue that the burial site was simply a cemetery for children who were stillborn or were not old enough to be buried in the necropolis. However, it cannot be said with complete confidence that people were not sacrificed in Carthage.

Social system

The entire population, according to its rights, was divided into several groups based on ethnicity. The Libyans were in the most difficult situation. The territory of Libya was divided into regions subordinate to the strategists, taxes were very high, and their collection was accompanied by all sorts of abuses. This led to frequent uprisings, which were brutally suppressed. Libyans were forcibly recruited into the army - the reliability of such units, of course, was very low. The Siculi - Sicilian Greeks - made up another part of the population; their rights in the field of political administration were limited by “Sidonian law” (its content is unknown). The Siculs, however, enjoyed free trade. People from the Phoenician cities annexed to Carthage enjoyed full civil rights, and the rest of the population (freedmen, settlers - in a word, not Phoenicians) enjoyed “Sidonian law” like the Siculs.

The Wealth of Carthage

Built on the foundation laid by the Phoenician ancestors, Carthage created its own trading network (it was mainly involved in the import of metals) and developed it to unprecedented proportions. Carthage maintained its monopoly on trade through a powerful fleet and mercenary troops.

Carthaginian merchants were constantly looking for new markets. Around 480 BC. e. The navigator Gimilkon landed in British Cornwall, rich in tin. And 30 years later, Hanno, who came from an influential Carthaginian family, led an expedition of 60 ships with 30,000 men and women. People were landed in different parts of the coast to found new colonies. It is possible that, having sailed through the Strait of Gibraltar and along the African coast, Hanno reached the Gulf of Guinea and even the shores of Cameroon.

Entrepreneurship and business acumen helped Carthage become, by all accounts, the richest city of the ancient world. “At the beginning of the 3rd century [BC. BC] thanks to technology, the fleet and trade... the city moved to the forefront,” says the book “Carthage”. The Greek historian Appian wrote about the Carthaginians: “Their power militarily became equal to the Hellenic, but in terms of wealth it was in second place after the Persian.”

Army

Carthage's army was mainly mercenary. The basis of the infantry were Spanish, African, Greek, and Gallic mercenaries; the Carthaginian aristocracy served in the “sacred detachment” - heavily armed cavalry. The mercenary cavalry consisted of Numidians, who were considered the most skilled warriors in antiquity, and Iberians. The Iberians were also considered good warriors - the Balearic slingers and caetrati (correlated with the Greek peltasts) formed the light infantry, the scutatii (armed with a spear, javelin and bronze shell) - the heavy, Spanish heavy cavalry (armed with swords) was also highly valued. The Celtiberian tribes used the weapons of the Gauls - long double-edged swords. An important role was also played by elephants, which were kept in numbers of about 300. The “technical” equipment of the army was also high (catapults, ballistas, etc.). In general, the composition of the Punic army was similar to the armies of the Hellenistic states. At the head of the army was the commander-in-chief, elected by the council of elders, but towards the end of the existence of the state, this election was also carried out by the army, which indicates monarchical tendencies.

Story

Carthage was founded by immigrants from the Phoenician city of Tire at the end of the 9th century BC. e. According to legend, the city was founded by the widow of a Phoenician king named Dido. She promised the local tribe to pay a precious stone for a piece of land limited by the skin of a bull, but on the condition that the choice of place would be hers. After the deal was concluded, the colonists chose a convenient location for the city, ringing it with narrow belts made from a single bull hide.

The authenticity of the legend is unknown, but it seems unlikely that without the favorable attitude of the natives, a handful of settlers could have established a foothold in the allotted territory and founded a city there. In addition, there is reason to believe that the settlers were representatives of a political party that was not popular in their homeland, and they could hardly hope for the support of the mother country. According to Herodotus, Justin and Ovid, soon after the founding of the city, relations between Carthage and the local population deteriorated. The leader of the Maksitan tribe Giarb, under the threat of war, demanded the hand of Queen Elissa, but she preferred death to marriage. The war, however, began and was not in favor of the Carthaginians. According to Ovid, Giarbus even captured the city and held it for several years.

Judging by the objects found during archaeological excavations, at the beginning of its history, trade relations connected Carthage with the metropolis, as well as Cyprus and Egypt.

In the 8th century BC. e. The situation in the Mediterranean has changed greatly. Phenicia was conquered by Assyria and numerous colonies became independent. Assyrian rule caused a massive exodus of population from the ancient Phoenician cities to the colonies. Probably, the population of Carthage was replenished with refugees to such an extent that Carthage was able, in turn, to form colonies itself. The first Carthaginian colony in the Western Mediterranean was the city of Ebessus on the island of Pitiuss (first half of the 7th century BC).

At the turn of the 7th and 6th centuries. BC e. Greek colonization began. In order to counter the advance of the Greeks, the Phoenician colonies began to unite into states. In Sicily - Panormus, Soluent, Motia in 580 BC. e. successfully resisted the Greeks. In Spain, a league of cities led by Hades fought Tartessus. But the basis of a single Phoenician state in the west was the union of Carthage and Utica.

The advantageous geographical position allowed Carthage to become the largest city in the western Mediterranean (the population reached 700,000 people), unite around itself the rest of the Phoenician colonies in North Africa and Spain and conduct extensive conquests and colonization.

6th century BC e.

In the 6th century, the Greeks founded the colony of Massalia and entered into an alliance with Tartessus. Initially, the Punes suffered defeats, but Mago carried out a reform of the army (now mercenaries became the basis of the troops), an alliance was concluded with the Etruscans, and in 537 BC. e. In the battle of Alalia, the Greeks were defeated. Soon Tartessus was destroyed and all the Phoenician cities of Spain were annexed.

The main source of wealth was trade - Carthaginian merchants traded in Egypt, Italy, Spain, the Black and Red Seas - and agriculture, based on the widespread use of slave labor. There was strict regulation of trade - Carthage sought to monopolize trade turnover; for this purpose, all subjects were obliged to trade only through the mediation of Carthaginian merchants. This brought huge profits, but greatly hampered the development of the territories under their control and contributed to the growth of separatist sentiments. During the Greco-Persian Wars, Carthage was allied with Persia, and together with the Etruscans an attempt was made to completely capture Sicily. But after the defeat at the Battle of Himera (480 BC) by a coalition of Greek city-states, the struggle was suspended for several decades. The main enemy of the Punics was Syracuse (by 400 BC this state was at the height of its power and sought to open trade in the west, completely captured by Carthage), the war continued at intervals of almost a hundred years (394-306 BC) and ended with the almost complete conquest of Sicily by the Punics.

III century BC e.

In the 3rd century BC. e. the interests of Carthage came into conflict with the strengthened Roman Republic. Relations, previously allied, began to deteriorate. This first appeared at the final stage of the war between Rome and Tarentum. Finally, in 264 BC. e. The First Punic War began. It was carried out mainly in Sicily and at sea. Quite quickly, the Romans captured Sicily, but this was affected by the almost complete absence of Rome’s fleet. Only by 260 BC. e. The Romans created a fleet and, using boarding tactics, won a naval victory at Cape Mila. In 256 BC. e. The Romans moved the fighting to Africa, defeating the fleet and then the land army of the Carthaginians. But the consul Attilius Regulus did not use the advantage gained, and a year later the Punic army under the command of the Spartan mercenary Xanthippus inflicted a complete defeat on the Romans. In this battle, as in many previous and subsequent ones, elephants brought victory (even though the Romans had already encountered them when fighting against Pyrrhus, king of Epirus). Only in 251 BC. e. In the battle of Panorma (Sicily), the Romans won a great victory, capturing 120 elephants. Two years later, the Carthaginians won a great naval victory (almost the only one in the entire war) and there was a lull due to the complete exhaustion of both sides.

Hamilcar Barca

In 247 BC. e. Hamilcar Barca (Lightning) became the commander-in-chief of Carthage; thanks to his outstanding abilities, success in Sicily began to lean toward the Punics, but in 241 BC. e. Rome, having gathered its strength, was able to field a new fleet and army. Carthage could no longer resist them and, after defeat, was forced to make peace, ceding Sicily to Rome, and pay an indemnity of 3,200 talents for 10 years.

After the defeat, Hamilcar resigned, power passed to his political opponents, led by Hanno. The Carthaginian government made a highly unreasonable attempt to reduce pay to mercenaries, which caused a strong uprising - the Libyans supported the army. Thus began the mercenary uprising, which almost ended in the death of the country. Hamilcar was again called to power. During the three-year war, he suppressed the uprising, but the garrison of Sardinia sided with the rebels and, fearing the tribes living on the island, recognized the power of Rome. Carthage demanded the return of the island. Since Rome was looking for an opportunity to destroy Carthage, under an insignificant pretext in 237 BC. e. declared war. Only by paying 1,200 talents to reimburse military expenses was the war averted.

The apparent inability of the aristocratic government to govern effectively led to the strengthening of the democratic opposition, led by Hamilcar. The People's Assembly vested him with the powers of commander-in-chief. In 236 BC. e., having conquered the entire African coast, he transferred the fighting to Spain. He fought there for 9 years until he fell in battle. After his death, the army chose his son-in-law Hasdrubal as commander in chief. In 16 years (236-220 BC), most of Spain was conquered and firmly tied to the metropolis. Silver mines brought very large incomes, and a magnificent army was created in battles. Overall, Carthage became much stronger than it had been even before the loss of Sicily.

Hannibal

After the death of Hasdrubal, the army chose Hannibal - the son of Hamilcar - as commander in chief. Hamilcar raised all his children - Mago, Hasdrubal and Hannibal - to hate Rome, therefore, having gained control of the army, Hannibal began to look for a reason to start a war. In 218 BC. e. he captured Saguntum - a Greek city and an ally of Rome - the war began. Unexpectedly for the enemy, Hannibal led his army around the Alps into Italian territory. There he won a number of victories - at Ticino, Trebia and Lake Trasimene. A dictator was appointed in Rome, but in 216 BC. e. near the city of Canna, Hannibal won a crushing victory, the consequence of which was the transition to his side of a significant part of Italy, and the second most important city - Capua. The fighting took place in both Spain and Sicily. Initially, Carthage was successful, but then the Romans managed to win a number of important victories. With the death of Hannibal's brother Hasdrubal, who led him with significant reinforcements, the position of Carthage became very complicated. Mago's landing in Italy was unsuccessful - he was defeated and killed in battle. Soon Rome moved the fighting to Africa. Having concluded an alliance with the king of the Numidians, Massinissa, Scipio inflicted a series of defeats on the Punes. Hannibal was called home. In 202 BC. e. In the battle of Zama, commanding a poorly trained army, he was defeated, and the Carthaginians decided to make peace. Under its terms, they were forced to give Spain and all the islands to Rome, maintain only 10 warships and pay 10,000 talents of indemnity. In addition, they had no right to fight with anyone without the permission of Rome.

After the end of the war, Hanno, Gisgon and Hasdrubal Gad, the heads of the aristocratic parties, who were hostile towards Hannibal, tried to get Hannibal condemned, but, supported by the population, he managed to retain power. Hopes for revenge were associated with his name. In 196 BC. e. Rome defeated Macedonia, which was an ally of Carthage, in the war. But there was one more ally left - the king of the Seleucid Empire, Antiochus. It was in alliance with him that Hannibal hoped to wage a new war, but first it was necessary to put an end to the oligarchic power in Carthage itself. Using his powers as suffet, he provoked a conflict with his political opponents and practically seized sole power. His tough actions against corruption among aristocratic officials caused opposition on their part. A denunciation was made to Rome about Hannibal's diplomatic relations with Antiochus. Rome demanded his extradition. Realizing that refusal would cause war, and the country was not ready for war, Hannibal was forced to flee the country to Antiochus. There he received virtually no powers, despite the greatest honors that accompanied his arrival. After the defeat of Antiochus, he hid in Crete, in Bithynia and, finally, constantly pursued by the Romans, was forced to commit suicide, not wanting to fall into the hands of the enemy.

III Punic War

Even after losing two wars, Carthage managed to quickly recover and soon became one of the richest cities again. In Rome, trade had long been an essential sector of the economy; competition from Carthage greatly hampered its development. His rapid recovery was also a big concern. Marcus Cato, who headed one of the commissions investigating the disputes of Carthage, managed to convince most of the Senate that he still posed a danger. The issue of starting the war was resolved, but it was necessary to find a convenient excuse.

The Numidian king Massinissa constantly attacked the Carthaginian possessions; Having realized that Rome always supports the opponents of Carthage, he moved on to direct seizures. All complaints of the Carthaginians were ignored and resolved in favor of Numidia. Finally, the Punes were forced to give him a direct military rebuff. Rome immediately made claims regarding the outbreak of hostilities without permission. The Roman army arrived at Carthage. The frightened Carthaginians asked for peace, the consul Lucius Censorinus demanded the surrender of all weapons, then demanded that Carthage be destroyed and that a new city be founded far from the sea. Having asked for a month to think it over, the Punes prepared for war. Thus began the Third Punic War. The city was superbly fortified, so it was possible to capture it only after 3 years of a difficult siege and heavy fighting. Carthage was completely destroyed, out of a population of 500,000, only 50,000 remained alive. A Roman province was created on its territory, ruled by a governor from Utica.

Rome in Africa

Just 100 years after the destruction of Carthage, Julius Caesar decided to found a colony on the site of the city. These plans were destined to come true only after his death. In honor of the founder, the colony was named "Colonia Julia Carthago" or "Carthaginian Colony of Julia". Roman engineers removed about 100,000 cubic meters of earth, destroying the top of Birsa to level the surface and eliminate traces of the past. Temples and beautiful public buildings were erected on this site. After some time, Carthage became “one of the most luxurious cities of the Roman world,” the second largest city in the West after Rome. To meet the needs of the city's 300,000 residents, a circus for 60,000 spectators, a theater, an amphitheater, baths and a 132-kilometer aqueduct were built there.

Christianity reached Carthage around the middle of the 2nd century AD. e. and quickly spread throughout the city. Around 155 AD. e. The famous theologian and apologist Tertullian was born in Carthage. Thanks to his works, Latin became the official language of the Western Church. In the 3rd century, Cyprian was the Bishop of Carthage, who introduced a system of seven-tier church hierarchy and died a martyr in 258 AD. e. Another North African, Augustine (354-430), the greatest Christian theologian of antiquity, combined the doctrines of the church with Greek philosophy.

By the beginning of the 5th century AD, the Roman Empire was in decline and the same was happening with Carthage. In 439 AD e. the city was captured and plundered by vandals. A hundred years later, the conquest of the city by the Byzantines temporarily stopped its final fall. In 698 AD e. the city was taken by the Arabs, its stones served as material for the construction of the city of Tunisia. In the following centuries, the marble and granite that once adorned the Roman city were looted and taken out of the country. Later they were used to build cathedrals in Genoa, Pisa, and Canterbury Cathedral in England. Today it is a suburb of Tunisia and an object of tourist pilgrimage.

Carthage today

Just 15 km from Tunisia, on a coast whitened by sea foam, opposite the Bukornina mountain range protecting its peace, stands ancient Carthage.

Carthage was built 2 times. The first time was in 814 BC, by the Phoenician princess Elissa, and was named Carthage, which means “new city” in Punic. Situated at the crossroads of the Mediterranean trade routes, it grew rapidly to become the main rival of the Roman Empire.

After the destruction of Carthage by Rome in 146 BC. During the Punic Wars, it was rebuilt as the capital of the Roman colony of Africa and continued to prosper. But it, too, eventually suffered the sad fate of Rome: the powerful cultural and commercial center was overwhelmed by crowds of barbarians in 430, then it was captured by the Byzantines in 533. After the Arab conquest, Carthage gave way to Kairouan, which became the capital of the new Arab state. Carthage was destroyed so many times, but each time it rose again. It’s not for nothing that when it was laid, the skulls of a horse and a bull were found - symbols of strength and wealth.

The city is interesting for its archaeological excavations. During excavations in the so-called Punic quarter, Punic water pipes were discovered under Roman buildings, studies of which showed how cleverly the water supply to tall (even six-story) buildings was carried out. At the beginning of our era, the Romans first leveled the site where the ruins of what was destroyed in 146 BC were located. Carthage, erected expensive retaining fortifications around the hill and built a forum on its flat top.

According to information from ancient history, first-born boys were sacrificed at this place to the patron god of the city, the god Baal-Hammon and the goddess Tanit, starting in the 5th century. BC. The whole ritual is expressively described by Gustave Flaubert in his novel Salammbô. During searches in the territory of Punic burials, archaeologists discovered about 50,000 urns with the remains of infants. On the restored tombstones one can discern the symbols of the gods carved with a chisel, the crescent moon or a stylized female figure with raised hands - the symbol of the goddess Tanit, as well as the sun disk - the symbol of Baal Hammon. Nearby are the harbors of Carthage, which later served the Romans: a commercial harbor in the south and a military harbor in the north.

Attractions

Birsa Hill. Here is the Cathedral of St. Louis. Finds from the excavations are on display at the National Museum of Carthage (Musee National de Carthage) on Birsa Hill.

The baths of Emperor Antoninus Pius in the Archaeological Park attract the greatest attention of tourists in Carthage. They were the largest in the Roman Empire after the Baths of Trajan in Rome. The aristocracy of Carthage met here for relaxation, bathing and business conversations. All that remains of the building itself are a few massive marble seats.

Next to the baths is the summer palace of the beys: today it is the residence of the President of Tunisia.

Carthage re-subordinates the former Phoenician colonies due to its advantageous geographical position. By the 3rd century BC. e. it becomes the largest state in the west of the Mediterranean Sea, subjugating Southern Spain, the coast of North Africa, Sicily, Sardinia, and Corsica. After the Punic Wars against Rome, Carthage lost its conquests and was destroyed in 146 BC. e. , its territory was turned into the Roman province of Africa. Julius Caesar proposed to found a colony in its place, which was founded after his death.

In the 420-430s, Western Roman Empire control over the province was lost due to separatist rebellions and the capture of the Vandal tribe by the Germanic tribe, who founded their kingdom with its capital in Carthage. After the conquest of North Africa by the Byzantine Emperor Justinian, the city of Carthage became the capital of the Carthaginian Exarchate. It finally lost its significance after being conquered by the Arabs at the end of the 7th century.

Location

Carthage was founded on a promontory with access to the sea in the north and south. The city's location made it a leader in Mediterranean maritime trade. All ships crossing the sea inevitably passed between Sicily and the coast of Tunisia.

Two large artificial harbors were dug within the city: one for the navy, capable of accommodating 220 warships, the other for commercial trade. On the isthmus that separated the harbors, a huge tower was built, surrounded by a wall.

The length of the massive city walls was 37 kilometers, and the height in some places reached 12 meters. Most of the walls were located on the shore, which made the city impregnable from the sea.

The city had a huge cemetery, places of worship, markets, a municipality, towers and a theater. It was divided into four identical residential areas. In the middle of the city there was a high citadel called Birsa. Carthage was one of the largest cities in Hellenistic times (according to some estimates, only Alexandria was larger) and was ranked among the largest cities of antiquity.

State structure

The exact nature of Carthage's polity is difficult to determine due to the paucity of sources. At the same time, his political system was described by Aristotle and Polybius.

Power in Carthage was in the hands of the aristocracy, divided into warring agrarian and commercial-industrial factions. The first were supporters of territorial expansion in Africa and opponents of expansion in other regions, which was adhered to by members of the second group, who tried to rely on the urban population. A government position could be bought.

The highest authority was the council of elders, headed by 10 (later 30) people. At the head of the executive branch were two sufetes, similar to the Roman consuls. They were elected annually and performed primarily the duties of commanders-in-chief of the army and navy. The Carthaginian Senate had legislative power, the number of senators was approximately three hundred, and the position itself was for life. A committee of 30 members was allocated from the Senate, which conducted all current work. The People's Assembly formally also played a significant role, but in fact it was rarely consulted in cases of disagreement between the Sufet and the Senate.

Around 450 BC. e. In order to create a counterbalance to the desire of some clans (especially the Mago clan) to gain full control over the council of elders, a council of judges was created. It consisted of 104 people and was initially supposed to judge the remaining officials upon the expiration of their terms of office, but subsequently dealt with control and trial.

From subordinate tribes and cities, Carthage received supplies of military contingents and payment of a large tax in cash or in kind. This system gave Carthage significant financial resources and the opportunity to create a strong army.

Religion

Although the Phoenicians lived scattered throughout the Western Mediterranean, they were united by common beliefs. The Carthaginians inherited the Canaanite religion from their Phoenician ancestors. Every year for centuries, Carthage sent envoys to Tire to perform a sacrifice there at the Temple of Melqart. In Carthage, the main deities were Baal Hammon, whose name means "fire-master", and Tanit, identified with Ashtoreth. The most notorious feature of Carthage's religion was child sacrifice. According to Diodorus Siculus, in 310 BC. e., during the attack on the city, in order to pacify Baal Hammon, the Carthaginians sacrificed more than 200 children from noble families. The Encyclopedia of Religion says: “The sacrifice of an innocent child as a sacrifice of atonement was the greatest act of propitiation of the gods. Apparently, this act was intended to ensure the welfare of both the family and the community.”

In 1921, archaeologists discovered a site where several rows of urns were found containing the charred remains of both animals (they were sacrificed instead of people) and small children. The place was named Tophet. The burials were located under steles on which requests were written that accompanied the sacrifices. It is estimated that the site contains the remains of more than 20,000 children sacrificed in just 200 years.

However, the theory of mass child sacrifices in Carthage also has opponents. In 2010, a team of international archaeologists studied material from 348 funeral urns. It turned out that about half of all children buried were either stillborn (at least 20 percent) or died shortly after birth. Only a few of the children buried were between five and six years old. Thus, children were cremated and buried in ceremonial urns regardless of the cause of their death, which was not always violent and took place on an altar. The study also disproved the legend that the Carthaginians sacrificed the first born male child in each family.

Social system

The entire population, according to its rights, was divided into several groups based on ethnicity. The Libyans were in the most difficult situation. The territory of Libya was divided into regions subordinate to the strategists, taxes were very high, and their collection was accompanied by all sorts of abuses. This led to frequent uprisings, which were brutally suppressed. Libyans were forcibly recruited into the army - the reliability of such units, of course, was very low. The Siculi - Sicilian inhabitants (Greeks?) - made up another part of the population; their rights in the field of political administration were limited by “Sidonian law” (its content is unknown). The Siculs, however, enjoyed free trade. People from the Phoenician cities annexed to Carthage enjoyed full civil rights, and the rest of the population (freedmen, settlers - in a word, not Phoenicians) enjoyed “Sidonian law” similar to the Siculs.

In order to avoid popular unrest, the poorest population was periodically expelled to subject areas.

This differed from neighboring Rome, which gave the Italians some autonomy and freedom from paying regular taxes.

The Carthaginians managed their dependent territories differently than the Romans. The latter, as we have seen, provided the conquered population of Italy with a certain degree of internal independence and freed them from paying any regular taxes. The Carthaginian government acted differently.

Economy

The city lay in the northeastern part of present-day Tunisia, in the depths of a large bay, near the mouth of the river. Bagrad, which irrigated the fertile plain. Sea routes between the eastern and western Mediterranean passed here; Carthage became a center for the exchange of handicrafts from the East for the raw materials of the West and South. Carthaginian merchants traded their own purple, ivory and slaves from Sudan, ostrich feathers and gold dust from central Africa. In exchange, silver and salted fish came from Spain, bread from Sardinia, olive oil and Greek artistic products from Sicily. Carpets, ceramics, enamel and glass beads went from Egypt and Phenicia to Carthage, for which Carthaginian merchants exchanged valuable raw materials from the natives.

In addition to trade, agriculture played an important role in the economy of the city-state. On the fertile plain of Bagrada lay the large estates of Carthaginian landowners, served by slaves and the local Libyan population, which was dependent on the serf type. Small free landownership, apparently, did not play any noticeable role in Carthage. The work of the Carthaginian Mago on agriculture in 28 books was subsequently translated into Latin by order of the Roman Senate.

Carthaginian merchants were constantly looking for new markets. Around 480 BC. e. The navigator Himilkon landed in Britain on the shore of the modern peninsula of Cornwall, rich in tin. And 30 years later, Hanno, who came from an influential Carthaginian family, led an expedition of 60 ships with 30,000 men and women. People were landed in different parts of the coast to found new colonies. It is possible that, having sailed through the Strait of Gibraltar and further south along the western coast of Africa, Hanno reached the Gulf of Guinea and even the shores of modern Cameroon.

The entrepreneurship and business acumen of its inhabitants helped Carthage become, by all accounts, the richest city of the ancient world. “At the beginning of the 3rd century BC. e. Thanks to technology, the fleet and trade... the city moved to the forefront,” says the book “Carthage”. The Greek historian Appian wrote about the Carthaginians: “Their power militarily became equal to the Hellenic, but in terms of wealth it was in second place after the Persian.”

Army

Carthage's army was mainly mercenary, although there was also a city militia. The basis of the infantry were Spanish, African, Greek, and Gallic mercenaries; the Carthaginian aristocracy served in the “sacred detachment” - heavily armed cavalry. The mercenary cavalry consisted of Numidians, who were considered the most skillful horsemen in antiquity, and Iberians. The Iberians were also considered good warriors - the Balearic slingers and caetrati (correlated with the Greek peltasts) formed the light infantry, the scutatii (armed with a spear, javelin and bronze shell) - the heavy, Spanish heavy cavalry (armed with swords) was also highly valued. The Celtiberian tribes used the weapons of the Gauls - long double-edged swords. An important role was also played by elephants, which were kept in numbers of about 300. The “technical” equipment of the army was also high (catapults, ballistas, etc.). In general, the composition of the Punic army was similar to the armies of the Hellenistic states. At the head of the army was the commander-in-chief, elected by the council of elders, but towards the end of the existence of the state, this election was also carried out by the army, which indicates monarchical tendencies.

If necessary, the state could mobilize a fleet of several hundred large five-deck ships, equipped and armed with the latest Hellenistic naval technology and equipped with an experienced crew.

Story

Carthage was founded by immigrants from the Phoenician city of Tire at the end of the 9th century BC. e. According to legend, the city was founded by the widow of a Phoenician king named Dido (daughter of the Tyrian king Carton). She promised the local tribe to pay a precious stone for a piece of land limited by the skin of a bull, but on the condition that the choice of place would be hers. After the deal was concluded, the colonists chose a convenient location for the city, ringing it with narrow belts made from a single bull hide. In the first Spanish chronicle " Estoria de España (Spanish)Russian " (or), prepared by King Alfonso X based on Latin sources, it is reported that the word " carthon"in that language meant skin (skin), and that is why she named the city Cartago." The same book also provides details of subsequent colonization.

The authenticity of the legend is unknown, but it seems unlikely that without the favorable attitude of the natives, a handful of settlers could have established a foothold in the allotted territory and founded a city there. In addition, there is reason to believe that the settlers were representatives of a political party that was not popular in their homeland, and they could hardly hope for the support of the mother country. According to reports from Herodotus, Justin and Ovid, relations between Carthage and the local population soured soon after the city's founding. The leader of the Maksitan tribe Giarb, under the threat of war, demanded the hand of Queen Dido, but she preferred death to marriage. The war, however, began and was not in favor of the Carthaginians. According to Ovid, Giarbus even captured the city and held it for several years.

The advantageous geographical position allowed Carthage to become the largest city in the Western Mediterranean (the population reached 700,000 people), unite around itself the rest of the Phoenician colonies in North Africa and Spain and conduct extensive conquests and colonization.

6th century BC e.

In the 6th century, the Greeks founded the colony of Massalia and formed an alliance with Tartessus. Initially, the Punes suffered defeats, but Mago I reformed the army (now mercenaries became the basis of the troops), an alliance was concluded with the Etruscans, and in 537 BC. e. In the battle of Alalia, the Greeks were defeated. Soon Tartessus was destroyed and all the Phoenician cities of Spain were annexed.

The main source of wealth was trade - Carthaginian merchants traded in Egypt, Italy, Spain, the Black and Red Seas - and agriculture, based on the widespread use of slave labor. There was strict regulation of trade - Carthage sought to monopolize trade turnover; for this purpose, all subjects were obliged to trade only through the mediation of Carthaginian merchants. This brought huge profits, but greatly hampered the development of the territories under their control and contributed to the growth of separatist sentiments. During the Greco-Persian Wars, Carthage was allied with Persia, and together with the Etruscans an attempt was made to completely capture Sicily. But after the defeat at the Battle of Himera (480 BC) by a coalition of Greek city-states, the struggle was suspended for several decades. The main enemy of the Punics was Syracuse (by 400 BC this state was at the height of its power and sought to open trade in the west, completely captured by Carthage), the war continued at intervals of almost a hundred years (394-306 BC) and ended with the almost complete conquest of Sicily by the Punics.

III century BC e.

Today it is a suburb of Tunisia and an object of tourist pilgrimage.

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Notes

Bibliography

Sources

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Research

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Links

• // Encyclopedic Dictionary of Brockhaus and Efron: in 86 volumes (82 volumes and 4 additional). - St. Petersburg. , 1890-1907.

Cities Personalities Language and writing Religion

Proto-Libyans The oldest mentions Lower Egypt and areas to the west Antiquity Lower Egypt and areas to the west Libya (as a region) Inner Libya Numidia Carthage region / Africa Mauretania Mixed population North Africa 1 They also lived in the south of Marmariki and east of Sirtiki. 2 The tribe was originally considered Numidian, but later their land went to Mauretania.

Parties Related events

Excerpt characterizing Carthage

The princess was lying in a chair, M lle Burien was rubbing her temples. Princess Marya, supporting her daughter-in-law, with tear-stained beautiful eyes, still looked at the door through which Prince Andrei came out, and baptized him. From the office one could hear, like gunshots, the often repeated angry sounds of an old man blowing his nose. As soon as Prince Andrei left, the office door quickly opened and the stern figure of an old man in a white robe looked out.
- Left? Well, good! - he said, looking angrily at the emotionless little princess, shook his head reproachfully and slammed the door.

In October 1805, Russian troops occupied the villages and towns of the Archduchy of Austria, and more new regiments came from Russia and, burdening the residents with billeting, were stationed at the Braunau fortress. The main apartment of Commander-in-Chief Kutuzov was in Braunau.
On October 11, 1805, one of the infantry regiments that had just arrived at Braunau, awaiting inspection by the commander-in-chief, stood half a mile from the city. Despite the non-Russian terrain and situation (orchards, stone fences, tiled roofs, mountains visible in the distance), despite the non-Russian people looking at the soldiers with curiosity, the regiment had exactly the same appearance as any Russian regiment had when preparing for a review somewhere in the middle of Russia.
In the evening, on the last march, an order was received that the commander-in-chief would inspect the regiment on the march. Although the words of the order seemed unclear to the regimental commander, and the question arose how to understand the words of the order: in marching uniform or not? In the council of battalion commanders, it was decided to present the regiment in full dress uniform on the grounds that it is always better to bow than not to bow. And the soldiers, after a thirty-mile march, did not sleep a wink, they repaired and cleaned themselves all night; adjutants and company commanders counted and expelled; and by morning the regiment, instead of the sprawling, disorderly crowd that it had been the day before during the last march, represented an orderly mass of 2,000 people, each of whom knew his place, his job, and of whom, on each of them, every button and strap was in its place and sparkled with cleanliness . Not only was the outside in good order, but if the commander-in-chief had wanted to look under the uniforms, he would have seen an equally clean shirt on each one and in each knapsack he would have found the legal number of things, “sweat and soap,” as the soldiers say. There was only one circumstance about which no one could be calm. It was shoes. More than half the people's boots were broken. But this deficiency was not due to the fault of the regimental commander, since, despite repeated demands, the goods were not released to him from the Austrian department, and the regiment traveled a thousand miles.
The regimental commander was an elderly, sanguine general with graying eyebrows and sideburns, thick-set and wider from chest to back than from one shoulder to the other. He was wearing a new, brand new uniform with wrinkled folds and thick golden epaulettes, which seemed to lift his fat shoulders upward rather than downward. The regimental commander had the appearance of a man happily performing one of the most solemn affairs of life. He walked in front of the front and, as he walked, trembled at every step, slightly arching his back. It was clear that the regimental commander was admiring his regiment, happy with it, that all his mental strength was occupied only with the regiment; but, despite the fact that his trembling gait seemed to say that, in addition to military interests, the interests of social life and the female sex occupied a significant place in his soul.
“Well, Father Mikhailo Mitrich,” he turned to one battalion commander (the battalion commander leaned forward smiling; it was clear that they were happy), “it was a lot of trouble this night.” However, it seems that nothing is wrong, the regiment is not bad... Eh?
The battalion commander understood the funny irony and laughed.
- And in Tsaritsyn Meadow they wouldn’t have driven you away from the field.
- What? - said the commander.
At this time, along the road from the city, along which the makhalnye were placed, two horsemen appeared. These were the adjutant and the Cossack riding behind.
The adjutant was sent from the main headquarters to confirm to the regimental commander what was said unclearly in yesterday's order, namely, that the commander-in-chief wanted to see the regiment exactly in the position in which it was marching - in overcoats, in covers and without any preparations.
A member of the Gofkriegsrat from Vienna arrived to Kutuzov the day before, with proposals and demands to join the army of Archduke Ferdinand and Mack as soon as possible, and Kutuzov, not considering this connection beneficial, among other evidence in favor of his opinion, intended to show the Austrian general that sad situation , in which troops came from Russia. For this purpose, he wanted to go out to meet the regiment, so the worse the situation of the regiment, the more pleasant it would be for the commander-in-chief. Although the adjutant did not know these details, he conveyed to the regimental commander the commander-in-chief’s indispensable requirement that the people wear overcoats and covers, and that otherwise the commander-in-chief would be dissatisfied. Having heard these words, the regimental commander lowered his head, silently raised his shoulders and spread his hands with a sanguine gesture.
- We've done things! - he said. “I told you, Mikhailo Mitrich, that on a campaign, we wear greatcoats,” he turned reproachfully to the battalion commander. - Oh, my God! - he added and decisively stepped forward. - Gentlemen, company commanders! – he shouted in a voice familiar to the command. - Sergeants major!... Will they be here soon? - he turned to the arriving adjutant with an expression of respectful courtesy, apparently referring to the person about whom he was speaking.
- In an hour, I think.
- Will we have time to change clothes?
- I don’t know, General...
The regimental commander himself approached the ranks and ordered that they change into their overcoats again. The company commanders scattered to their companies, the sergeants began to fuss (the overcoats were not entirely in good working order) and at the same moment the previously regular, silent quadrangles swayed, stretched out, and hummed with conversation. Soldiers ran and ran up from all sides, threw them from behind with their shoulders, dragged backpacks over their heads, took off their greatcoats and, raising their arms high, pulled them into their sleeves.
Half an hour later everything returned to its previous order, only the quadrangles turned gray from black. The regimental commander, again with a trembling gait, stepped forward of the regiment and looked at it from afar.
- What else is this? What's this! – he shouted, stopping. - Commander of the 3rd company!..
- Commander of the 3rd company to the general! commander to the general, 3rd company to the commander!... - voices were heard along the ranks, and the adjutant ran to look for the hesitant officer.
When the sounds of diligent voices, misinterpreting, shouting “general to the 3rd company”, reached their destination, the required officer appeared from behind the company and, although the man was already elderly and did not have the habit of running, awkwardly clinging to his toes, trotted towards the general. The captain's face expressed the anxiety of a schoolboy who is told to tell a lesson he has not learned. There were spots on his red (obviously from intemperance) nose, and his mouth could not find a position. The regimental commander examined the captain from head to toe as he approached breathlessly, slowing his pace as he approached.
– You’ll soon dress people up in sundresses! What's this? - shouted the regimental commander, extending his lower jaw and pointing in the ranks of the 3rd company to a soldier in an overcoat the color of factory cloth, different from other overcoats. – Where were you? The commander-in-chief is expected, and you are moving away from your place? Huh?... I'll teach you how to dress people in Cossacks for a parade!... Huh?...
The company commander, without taking his eyes off his superior, pressed his two fingers more and more to the visor, as if in this one pressing he now saw his salvation.
- Well, why are you silent? Who's dressed up as a Hungarian? – the regimental commander joked sternly.
- Your Excellency…
- Well, what about “your excellency”? Your Excellency! Your Excellency! And what about Your Excellency, no one knows.
“Your Excellency, this is Dolokhov, demoted...” the captain said quietly.
– Was he demoted to field marshal or something, or to soldier? And a soldier must be dressed like everyone else, in uniform.
“Your Excellency, you yourself allowed him to go.”
- Allowed? Allowed? “You’re always like this, young people,” said the regimental commander, cooling down somewhat. - Allowed? I’ll tell you something, and you and...” The regimental commander paused. - I’ll tell you something, and you and... - What? - he said, getting irritated again. - Please dress people decently...
And the regimental commander, looking back at the adjutant, walked towards the regiment with his trembling gait. It was clear that he himself liked his irritation, and that, having walked around the regiment, he wanted to find another pretext for his anger. Having cut off one officer for not cleaning his badge, another for being out of line, he approached the 3rd company.
- How are you standing? Where's the leg? Where's the leg? - the regimental commander shouted with an expression of suffering in his voice, still about five people short of Dolokhov, dressed in a bluish overcoat.
Dolokhov slowly straightened his bent leg and looked straight into the general’s face with his bright and insolent gaze.
- Why the blue overcoat? Down with... Sergeant Major! Changing his clothes... rubbish... - He didn’t have time to finish.
“General, I am obliged to carry out orders, but I am not obliged to endure...” Dolokhov hastily said.
– Don’t talk at the front!... Don’t talk, don’t talk!...
“You don’t have to endure insults,” Dolokhov finished loudly and resoundingly.
The eyes of the general and the soldier met. The general fell silent, angrily pulling down his tight scarf.
“Please change your clothes, please,” he said, walking away.

- He's coming! - the makhalny shouted at this time.
The regimental commander, blushing, ran up to the horse, with trembling hands took the stirrup, threw the body over, straightened himself, took out his sword and with a happy, decisive face, his mouth open to the side, prepared to shout. The regiment perked up like a recovering bird and froze.
- Smir r r r na! - the regimental commander shouted in a soul-shaking voice, joyful for himself, strict in relation to the regiment and friendly in relation to the approaching commander.
Along a wide, tree-lined, highwayless road, a tall blue Viennese carriage rode in a row at a brisk trot, its springs slightly rattling. Behind the carriage galloped a retinue and a convoy of Croats. Next to Kutuzov sat an Austrian general in a strange white uniform among the black Russians. The carriage stopped at the shelf. Kutuzov and the Austrian general were talking quietly about something, and Kutuzov smiled slightly, while, stepping heavily, he lowered his foot from the footrest, as if these 2,000 people were not there, who were looking at him and the regimental commander without breathing .
A shout of command was heard, and again the regiment trembled with a ringing sound, putting itself on guard. In the dead silence the weak voice of the commander-in-chief was heard. The regiment barked: “We wish you good health, yours!” And again everything froze. At first, Kutuzov stood in one place while the regiment moved; then Kutuzov, next to the white general, on foot, accompanied by his retinue, began to walk along the ranks.
By the way the regimental commander saluted the commander-in-chief, glaring at him with his eyes, stretching out and getting closer, how he leaned forward and followed the generals along the ranks, barely maintaining a trembling movement, how he jumped at every word and movement of the commander-in-chief, it was clear that he was fulfilling his duties subordinate with even greater pleasure than the duties of a superior. The regiment, thanks to the rigor and diligence of the regimental commander, was in excellent condition compared to others who came to Braunau at the same time. There were only 217 people who were retarded and sick. And everything was fine, except for the shoes.
Kutuzov walked through the ranks, occasionally stopping and speaking a few kind words to the officers whom he knew from the Turkish war, and sometimes to the soldiers. Looking at the shoes, he sadly shook his head several times and pointed them out to the Austrian general with such an expression that he didn’t seem to blame anyone for it, but he couldn’t help but see how bad it was. Each time the regimental commander ran ahead, afraid to miss the commander-in-chief's word regarding the regiment. Behind Kutuzov, at such a distance that any faintly spoken word could be heard, walked about 20 people in his retinue. The gentlemen of the retinue talked among themselves and sometimes laughed. The handsome adjutant walked closest to the commander-in-chief. It was Prince Bolkonsky. Next to him walked his comrade Nesvitsky, a tall staff officer, extremely fat, with a kind and smiling handsome face and moist eyes; Nesvitsky could hardly restrain himself from laughing, excited by the blackish hussar officer walking next to him. The hussar officer, without smiling, without changing the expression of his fixed eyes, looked with a serious face at the back of the regimental commander and imitated his every movement. Every time the regimental commander flinched and bent forward, in exactly the same way, in exactly the same way, the hussar officer flinched and bent forward. Nesvitsky laughed and pushed others to look at the funny man.
Kutuzov walked slowly and sluggishly past thousands of eyes that rolled out of their sockets, watching their boss. Having caught up with the 3rd company, he suddenly stopped. The retinue, not anticipating this stop, involuntarily moved towards him.
- Ah, Timokhin! - said the commander-in-chief, recognizing the captain with the red nose, who suffered for his blue overcoat.
It seemed that it was impossible to stretch out more than Timokhin stretched out, while the regimental commander reprimanded him. But at that moment the commander-in-chief addressed him, the captain stood up straight so that it seemed that if the commander-in-chief had looked at him for a little longer, the captain would not have been able to stand it; and therefore Kutuzov, apparently understanding his position and wishing, on the contrary, all the best for the captain, hastily turned away. A barely noticeable smile ran across Kutuzov’s plump, wound-disfigured face.
“Another Izmailovo comrade,” he said. - Brave officer! Are you happy with it? – Kutuzov asked the regimental commander.
And the regimental commander, reflected as in a mirror, invisible to himself, in a hussar officer, shuddered, came forward and answered:
– I am very pleased, Your Excellency.
“We are all not without weaknesses,” said Kutuzov, smiling and moving away from him. “He had a devotion to Bacchus.
The regimental commander was afraid that he was to blame for this, and did not answer anything. The officer at that moment noticed the captain’s face with a red nose and a tucked belly and imitated his face and pose so closely that Nesvitsky could not stop laughing.
Kutuzov turned around. It was clear that the officer could control his face as he wanted: the minute Kutuzov turned around, the officer managed to make a grimace, and after that take on the most serious, respectful and innocent expression.
The third company was the last, and Kutuzov thought about it, apparently remembering something. Prince Andrei stepped out from his retinue and said quietly in French:
– You ordered a reminder about Dolokhov, who was demoted, in this regiment.
-Where is Dolokhov? – asked Kutuzov.
Dolokhov, already dressed in a soldier’s gray overcoat, did not wait to be called. The slender figure of a blond soldier with clear blue eyes stepped out from the front. He approached the commander-in-chief and put him on guard.
- Claim? – Kutuzov asked, frowning slightly.
“This is Dolokhov,” said Prince Andrei.
- A! - said Kutuzov. “I hope this lesson will correct you, serve well.” The Lord is merciful. And I will not forget you if you deserve it.
Blue, clear eyes looked at the commander-in-chief as defiantly as at the regimental commander, as if with their expression they were tearing apart the veil of convention that so far separated the commander-in-chief from the soldier.
“I ask one thing, Your Excellency,” he said in his sonorous, firm, unhurried voice. “Please give me a chance to make amends for my guilt and prove my devotion to the Emperor and Russia.”
Kutuzov turned away. The same smile in his eyes flashed across his face as when he turned away from Captain Timokhin. He turned away and winced, as if he wanted to express that everything that Dolokhov told him, and everything that he could tell him, he had known for a long, long time, that all this had already bored him and that all this was not at all what he needed . He turned away and headed towards the stroller.
The regiment disbanded in companies and headed to assigned quarters not far from Braunau, where they hoped to put on shoes, dress and rest after difficult marches.
– You don’t lay claim to me, Prokhor Ignatyich? - said the regimental commander, driving around the 3rd company moving towards the place and approaching Captain Timokhin, who was walking in front of it. The regimental commander’s face expressed uncontrollable joy after a happily completed review. - The royal service... it’s impossible... another time you’ll end it at the front... I’ll apologize first, you know me... I thanked you very much! - And he extended his hand to the company commander.
- For mercy's sake, general, do I dare! - answered the captain, turning red with his nose, smiling and revealing with a smile the lack of two front teeth, knocked out by the butt under Ishmael.
- Yes, tell Mr. Dolokhov that I will not forget him, so that he can be calm. Yes, please tell me, I kept wanting to ask how he is, how he is behaving? And that's all...
“He is very serviceable in his service, Your Excellency... but the charterer...” said Timokhin.
- What, what character? – asked the regimental commander.
“Your Excellency finds, for days,” said the captain, “that he is smart, learned, and kind.” It's a beast. He killed a Jew in Poland, if you please...
“Well, yes, well,” said the regimental commander, “we still need to feel sorry for the young man in misfortune.” After all, great connections... So you...
“I’m listening, Your Excellency,” Timokhin said, smiling, making it feel like he understood the boss’s wishes.
- Yes Yes.
The regimental commander found Dolokhov in the ranks and reined in his horse.
“Before the first task, epaulets,” he told him.
Dolokhov looked around, said nothing and did not change the expression of his mockingly smiling mouth.
“Well, that’s good,” continued the regimental commander. “The people each have a glass of vodka from me,” he added so that the soldiers could hear. – Thank you everyone! God bless! - And he, overtaking the company, drove up to another.
“Well, he’s really a good man; “You can serve with him,” said subaltern Timokhin to the officer walking next to him.
“One word, the king of hearts!... (the regimental commander was nicknamed the king of hearts),” the subaltern officer said, laughing.
The happy mood of the authorities after the review spread to the soldiers. The company walked cheerfully. Soldiers' voices were talking from all sides.
- What did they say, crooked Kutuzov, about one eye?
- Otherwise, no! Totally crooked.
- No... brother, he has bigger eyes than you. Boots and tucks - I looked at everything...
- How can he, my brother, look at my feet... well! Think…
- And the other Austrian, with him, was as if smeared with chalk. Like flour, white. I tea, how they clean ammunition!
- What, Fedeshow!... did he say that when the fighting began, you stood closer? They all said that Bunaparte himself stands in Brunovo.
- Bunaparte is worth it! he's lying, you fool! What he doesn’t know! Now the Prussian is rebelling. The Austrian, therefore, pacifies him. As soon as he makes peace, then war will open with Bunaparte. Otherwise, he says, Bunaparte is standing in Brunovo! That's what shows that he's a fool. Listen more.
- Look, damn the lodgers! The fifth company, look, is already turning into the village, they will cook porridge, and we still won’t reach the place.
- Give me a cracker, damn it.
- Did you give me tobacco yesterday? That's it, brother. Well, here we go, God be with you.
“At least they made a stop, otherwise we won’t eat for another five miles.”
– It was nice how the Germans gave us strollers. When you go, know: it’s important!
“And here, brother, the people have gone completely rabid.” Everything there seemed to be a Pole, everything was from the Russian crown; and now, brother, he’s gone completely German.
– Songwriters forward! – the captain’s cry was heard.
And twenty people ran out from different rows in front of the company. The drummer began to sing and turned his face to the songwriters, and, waving his hand, began a drawn-out soldier’s song, which began: “Isn’t it dawn, the sun has broken...” and ended with the words: “So, brothers, there will be glory for us and Kamensky’s father...” This song was composed in Turkey and was now sung in Austria, only with the change that in place of “Kamensky’s father” the words were inserted: “Kutuzov’s father.”
Having torn off these last words like a soldier and waving his hands, as if he was throwing something to the ground, the drummer, a dry and handsome soldier of about forty, looked sternly at the soldier songwriters and closed his eyes. Then, making sure that all eyes were fixed on him, he seemed to carefully lift with both hands some invisible, precious thing above his head, held it like that for several seconds and suddenly desperately threw it:
Oh, you, my canopy, my canopy!
“My new canopy...”, twenty voices echoed, and the spoon holder, despite the weight of his ammunition, quickly jumped forward and walked backwards in front of the company, moving his shoulders and threatening someone with his spoons. The soldiers, waving their arms to the beat of the song, walked with long strides, involuntarily hitting their feet. From behind the company the sounds of wheels, the crunching of springs and the trampling of horses were heard.
Kutuzov and his retinue were returning to the city. The commander-in-chief gave a sign for the people to continue walking freely, and pleasure was expressed on his face and on all the faces of his retinue at the sounds of the song, at the sight of the dancing soldier and the soldiers of the company walking cheerfully and briskly. In the second row, from the right flank, from which the carriage overtook the companies, one involuntarily caught the eye of a blue-eyed soldier, Dolokhov, who especially briskly and gracefully walked to the beat of the song and looked at the faces of those passing with such an expression, as if he felt sorry for everyone who did not go at this time with the company. A hussar cornet from Kutuzov's retinue, imitating the regimental commander, fell behind the carriage and drove up to Dolokhov.
The hussar cornet Zherkov at one time in St. Petersburg belonged to that violent society led by Dolokhov. Abroad, Zherkov met Dolokhov as a soldier, but did not consider it necessary to recognize him. Now, after Kutuzov’s conversation with the demoted man, he turned to him with the joy of an old friend:
- Dear friend, how are you? - he said at the sound of the song, matching the step of his horse with the step of the company.
- I am like? - Dolokhov answered coldly, - as you see.
The lively song gave particular significance to the tone of cheeky gaiety with which Zherkov spoke and the deliberate coldness of Dolokhov’s answers.
- Well, how do you get along with your boss? – asked Zherkov.
- Nothing, good people. How did you get into the headquarters?
- Seconded, on duty.
They were silent.
“She released a falcon from her right sleeve,” said the song, involuntarily arousing a cheerful, cheerful feeling. Their conversation would probably have been different if they had not spoken to the sound of a song.
– Is it true that the Austrians were beaten? – asked Dolokhov.
“The devil knows them,” they say.
“I’m glad,” Dolokhov answered briefly and clearly, as the song required.
“Well, come to us in the evening, you’ll pawn the pharaoh,” said Zherkov.
– Or do you have a lot of money?
- Come.
- It is forbidden. I made a vow. I don’t drink or gamble until they make it.
- Well, on to the first thing...
- We'll see there.
Again they were silent.
“You come in if you need anything, everyone at headquarters will help...” said Zherkov.
Dolokhov grinned.
- You better not worry. I won’t ask for anything I need, I’ll take it myself.
- Well, I’m so...
- Well, so am I.
- Goodbye.
- Be healthy…
... and high and far,
On the home side...
Zherkov touched his spurs to the horse, which, getting excited, kicked three times, not knowing which one to start with, managed and galloped off, overtaking the company and catching up with the carriage, also to the beat of the song.

Returning from the review, Kutuzov, accompanied by the Austrian general, went into his office and, calling the adjutant, ordered to be given some papers related to the state of the arriving troops, and letters received from Archduke Ferdinand, who commanded the advanced army. Prince Andrei Bolkonsky entered the commander-in-chief's office with the required papers. Kutuzov and an Austrian member of the Gofkriegsrat sat in front of the plan laid out on the table.
“Ah...” said Kutuzov, looking back at Bolkonsky, as if with this word he was inviting the adjutant to wait, and continued the conversation he had started in French.
“I’m just saying one thing, General,” Kutuzov said with a pleasant grace of expression and intonation, which forced you to listen carefully to every leisurely spoken word. It was clear that Kutuzov himself enjoyed listening to himself. “I only say one thing, General, that if the matter depended on my personal desire, then the will of His Majesty Emperor Franz would have been fulfilled long ago.” I would have joined the Archduke long ago. And believe my honor, it would be a joy for me personally to hand over the highest command of the army to a more knowledgeable and skilled general than I am, of which Austria is so abundant, and to relinquish all this heavy responsibility. But circumstances are stronger than us, General.
And Kutuzov smiled with an expression as if he was saying: “You have every right not to believe me, and even I don’t care at all whether you believe me or not, but you have no reason to tell me this. And that’s the whole point.”
The Austrian general looked dissatisfied, but could not help but respond to Kutuzov in the same tone.
“On the contrary,” he said in a grumpy and angry tone, so contrary to the flattering meaning of the words he was saying, “on the contrary, your Excellency’s participation in the common cause is highly valued by His Majesty; but we believe that the present slowdown deprives the glorious Russian troops and their commanders-in-chief of the laurels that they are accustomed to reaping in battles,” he finished his apparently prepared phrase.
Kutuzov bowed without changing his smile.
“And I am so convinced and, based on the last letter with which His Highness Archduke Ferdinand honored me, I assume that the Austrian troops, under the command of such a skillful assistant as General Mack, have now won a decisive victory and no longer need our help,” said Kutuzov.
The general frowned. Although there was no positive news about the defeat of the Austrians, there were too many circumstances that confirmed the general unfavorable rumors; and therefore Kutuzov’s assumption about the victory of the Austrians was very similar to ridicule. But Kutuzov smiled meekly, still with the same expression, which said that he had the right to assume this. Indeed, the last letter he received from Mac's army informed him of the victory and the most advantageous strategic position of the army.
“Give me this letter here,” said Kutuzov, turning to Prince Andrei. - If you please see. - And Kutuzov, with a mocking smile at the ends of his lips, read in German to the Austrian general the following passage from a letter from Archduke Ferdinand: “Wir haben vollkommen zusammengehaltene Krafte, nahe an 70,000 Mann, um den Feind, wenn er den Lech passirte, angreifen und schlagen zu konnen. Wir konnen, da wir Meister von Ulm sind, den Vortheil, auch von beiden Uferien der Donau Meister zu bleiben, nicht verlieren; mithin auch jeden Augenblick, wenn der Feind den Lech nicht passirte, die Donau ubersetzen, uns auf seine Communikations Linie werfen, die Donau unterhalb repassiren und dem Feinde, wenn er sich gegen unsere treue Allirte mit ganzer Macht wenden wollte, seine Absicht alabald vereitelien . Wir werden auf solche Weise den Zeitpunkt, wo die Kaiserlich Ruseische Armee ausgerustet sein wird, muthig entgegenharren, und sodann leicht gemeinschaftlich die Moglichkeit finden, dem Feinde das Schicksal zuzubereiten, so er verdient.” [We have quite concentrated forces, about 70,000 people, so that we can attack and defeat the enemy if he crosses Lech. Since we already own Ulm, we can retain the benefit of command of both banks of the Danube, therefore, every minute, if the enemy does not cross the Lech, cross the Danube, rush to his communication line, and below cross the Danube back to the enemy, if he decides to turn all his power on our faithful allies, prevent his intention from being fulfilled. Thus, we will cheerfully await the time when the imperial Russian army is completely ready, and then together we will easily find the opportunity to prepare for the enemy the fate he deserves.”]
Kutuzov sighed heavily, ending this period, and looked attentively and affectionately at the member of the Gofkriegsrat.
“But you know, Your Excellency, the wise rule is to assume the worst,” said the Austrian general, apparently wanting to end the jokes and get down to business.
He involuntarily looked back at the adjutant.
“Excuse me, General,” Kutuzov interrupted him and also turned to Prince Andrei. - That's it, my dear, take all the reports from our spies from Kozlovsky. Here are two letters from Count Nostitz, here is a letter from His Highness Archduke Ferdinand, here is another,” he said, handing him several papers. - And from all this, neatly, in French, compose a memorandum, a note, for the sake of visibility of all the news that we had about the actions of the Austrian army. Well, then, introduce him to his Excellency.
Prince Andrei bowed his head as a sign that he understood from the first words not only what was said, but also what Kutuzov wanted to tell him. He collected the papers, and, making a general bow, quietly walking along the carpet, went out into the reception room.
Despite the fact that not much time has passed since Prince Andrei left Russia, he has changed a lot during this time. In the expression of his face, in his movements, in his gait, the former pretense, fatigue and laziness were almost not noticeable; he had the appearance of a man who does not have time to think about the impression he makes on others, and is busy doing something pleasant and interesting. His face expressed more satisfaction with himself and those around him; his smile and gaze were more cheerful and attractive.
Kutuzov, whom he caught up with in Poland, received him very kindly, promised him not to forget him, distinguished him from other adjutants, took him with him to Vienna and gave him more serious assignments. From Vienna, Kutuzov wrote to his old comrade, the father of Prince Andrei:
“Your son,” he wrote, “shows hope of becoming an officer, out of the ordinary in his studies, firmness and diligence. I consider myself lucky to have such a subordinate at hand.”
At Kutuzov's headquarters, among his comrades and colleagues, and in the army in general, Prince Andrei, as well as in St. Petersburg society, had two completely opposite reputations.
Some, a minority, recognized Prince Andrei as something special from themselves and from all other people, expected great success from him, listened to him, admired him and imitated him; and with these people Prince Andrei was simple and pleasant. Others, the majority, did not like Prince Andrei, considered him a pompous, cold and unpleasant person. But with these people, Prince Andrei knew how to position himself in such a way that he was respected and even feared.
Coming out of Kutuzov’s office into the reception area, Prince Andrei with papers approached his comrade, the adjutant on duty Kozlovsky, who was sitting by the window with a book.
- Well, what, prince? – asked Kozlovsky.
“We were ordered to write a note explaining why we shouldn’t go ahead.”
- And why?
Prince Andrey shrugged his shoulders.
- No news from Mac? – asked Kozlovsky.
- No.
“If it were true that he was defeated, then the news would come.”
“Probably,” said Prince Andrei and headed towards the exit door; but at the same time, a tall, obviously visiting, Austrian general in a frock coat, with a black scarf tied around his head and with the Order of Maria Theresa around his neck, quickly entered the reception room, slamming the door. Prince Andrei stopped.
- General Chief Kutuzov? - the visiting general quickly said with a sharp German accent, looking around on both sides and walking without stopping to the office door.
“The general in chief is busy,” said Kozlovsky, hastily approaching the unknown general and blocking his path from the door. - How would you like to report?
The unknown general looked contemptuously down at the short Kozlovsky, as if surprised that he might not be known.
“The general in chief is busy,” Kozlovsky repeated calmly.
The general's face frowned, his lips twitched and trembled. He took out a notebook, quickly drew something with a pencil, tore out a piece of paper, gave it to him, walked quickly to the window, threw his body on a chair and looked around at those in the room, as if asking: why are they looking at him? Then the general raised his head, craned his neck, as if intending to say something, but immediately, as if casually starting to hum to himself, he made a strange sound, which immediately stopped. The door to the office opened, and Kutuzov appeared on the threshold. The general with his head bandaged, as if running away from danger, bent down and approached Kutuzov with large, fast steps of his thin legs.

Tunisia Coordinates Coordinates:  /  (G) (O)36.861111 , 10.331667 36°51′40″ n. w. 10°19′54″ E. d. /  36.861111° s. w. 10.331667° E. d.(G) (O) Date of foundation 814 BC First settlement of Jews 146 BC

Carthage Phoenician state
814 BC e. - 146 BC e.
270px
Capital	Carthage
Languages)	Phoenician
Continuity
Roman Republic →

Carthage (Qart-ḥada(št)) - a Phoenician state with its capital in the city of the same name, which existed in ancient times in northern Africa, on the territory of modern Tunisia.

Of particular interest to the Jews because of the Phoenician origin of its inhabitants, its rulers, called "soufeits"(cf. Hebrew "שופטים" (judges)), and because of the religion of the inhabitants.

Origin of the name and mention in Jewish sources

Name Qart-ḥadašt(in Punic notation without vowels Qrtḥdšt) is translated from Phoenician as “new city”.

Name of the city in ancient Jewish documents

The city called " קרת חדשת " ("New City") in the original spelling, is mentioned in Jewish documents of Talmudic times only as " קרתגיני " ("Ḳarthigini"), Name equivalent to the Byzantine form Kαρθαγένη and according to Cyriacus, the Greek form Kαρχηδών was introduced later.

Despite the peculiar form, perhaps chosen with reference to the founder Dido (" קרתא " + γυνή , "City Woman"), the Hebrew word certainly defines Carthage in Africa, not Cartagena in Spain. Later Jewish chronicles, which date the founding of Carthage to the time of David, use the variant "Ḳarṭagena" "Ḳarṭigini" (with ט instead of ח , sometimes even in the Talmud, "David Hans" to 3882), "Ḳartini" and "Ḳartigni", sometimes adding the curious remark that the Talmud refers to the two cities of Carthage, which, however, is erroneous.

Carthage in the books of Josephus Flavius

But a widespread rabbinical legend identifies the land of the Amazons with Carthage (Lev. XXVII R.1) or with Africa (Tamid 32b), in both cases according to the classical tradition.

Carthage was recognized as one of the four largest cities of the Roman Empire. Amora of the third century gave the following curious sentence: “From Tire to Carthage Israel and his “father in heaven” are known; from Tire to the west and from Carthage to the east Israel and his God are not known,” which probably indicates the area of ​​distribution of the Semitic race .

Story

Carthage was founded in 814 BC. e. by colonists from the city of Tyre, on the site of the present city of Tunis. The city's location (almost in the center of the Mediterranean Sea) made it the leader of Mediterranean maritime trade.

Religion

The most notorious feature of Carthage's religion was child sacrifice. According to Diodorus Siculus, in 310 BC. e., during the attack on the city, in order to pacify Baal Hammon, the Carthaginians sacrificed more than 200 children from noble families. The Encyclopedia of Religion states: “The sacrifice of an innocent child as a sacrifice of atonement was the greatest act of propitiation of the gods. Apparently, this act was intended to ensure the welfare of both the family and the community.”

In 1921, archaeologists discovered a site where several rows of urns were found containing the charred remains of both animals (they were sacrificed instead of people) and small children. The place was named Tophet. The burials were located under steles on which requests were written that accompanied the sacrifices.

It is estimated that the site contains the remains of more than 20,000 children sacrificed in just 200 years. Today, some revisionists argue that the burial site was simply a cemetery for children who were stillborn or were not old enough to be buried in the necropolis. However, it cannot be said with complete confidence that people were not sacrificed in Carthage.

Social system

The entire population, according to its rights, was divided into several groups based on ethnicity.

The Libyans were in the most difficult situation. The territory of Libya was divided into regions subordinate to the strategists, taxes were very high, and their collection was accompanied by all sorts of abuses. This led to frequent uprisings, which were brutally suppressed. Libyans were forcibly recruited into the army - the reliability of such units, of course, was very low.

The Siculi - Sicilian inhabitants - made up another part of the population. Their rights in the field of political administration were limited by “Sidonian law” (its content is unknown). The Siculs, however, enjoyed free trade.

People from the Phoenician cities annexed to Carthage enjoyed full civil rights, and the rest of the population (freedmen, settlers - in a word, not Phoenicians) enjoyed “Sidonian law” like the Siculs.

The Wealth of Carthage

Carthage created its own trading network and developed it to unprecedented proportions. He was mainly involved in the import of metals. Carthage maintained its monopoly on trade through a powerful fleet and mercenary troops.

Carthaginian merchants were constantly looking for new markets. Around 480 BC. e. navigator Gimilkon landed in British Cornwall, rich in tin.

And 30 years later, Hanno, who came from an influential Carthaginian family, led an expedition of 60 ships with 30,000 men and women. People were landed in different parts of the coast to found new colonies. It is possible that, having sailed through the Strait of Gibraltar and along the African coast, Hanno reached the Gulf of Guinea and even the shores of Cameroon.

The entrepreneurship and business acumen of its inhabitants helped Carthage become, by all accounts, richest city of the ancient world. “At the beginning of the 3rd century BC. e. Thanks to technology, the navy and trade... the city moved to the forefront,” says the book “Carthage”. The Greek historian Appian wrote about the Carthaginians: “Their power militarily became equal to the Hellenic, but in terms of wealth it was in second place after the Persian.”

Military forces

Carthage's army was mainly mercenary. The basis of the infantry were Spanish, African, Greek, and Gallic mercenaries. The Carthaginian aristocracy served in the “sacred band” - heavily armed cavalry. The mercenary cavalry consisted of Numidians, who were considered the most skilled warriors in antiquity, and Iberians.

In general, the composition is Punic the army was similar to the armies of the Hellenistic states. At the head of the army was the commander-in-chief, elected by the council of elders, but towards the end of the existence of the state, this election was also carried out by the army, which indicates monarchical tendencies.

Wars with Rome

In the 3rd century BC. e. the interests of Carthage came into conflict with the strengthened Roman Republic. Relations, previously allied, began to deteriorate. Finally, in 264 BC. e. The First Punic War began.

In 241 BC. e. Rome was able to field a new fleet and army. Carthage could no longer resist them and after the defeat was forced to make peace.

The Carthaginian government made an attempt to reduce pay to mercenaries. They rebelled, which almost ended in the death of the country.

The apparent inability of the aristocratic government to govern effectively led to the strengthening of the democratic opposition, led by Hamilcar. The People's Assembly vested him with the powers of commander-in-chief. In 236 BC. e., having conquered the entire African coast, he transferred the fighting to Spain. In 16 years (236-220 BC), most of Spain was conquered and firmly tied to the metropolis.

A new war was fought in Italy in 218-202 BC. e. and ended with the defeat of Carthage.

The Third Punic War led to the destruction of Carthage and Rome's seizure of all other Phoenician colonies in Africa and Spain.

Rome in Africa

100 years after the destruction of Carthage, Julius Caesar decided to found a colony on the site of the city. These plans were destined to come true only after his death. After some time, Carthage became “one of the most luxurious cities of the Roman world,” the second largest city in the West after Rome.

Until the beginning of the 4th century. The standard of living of the Jews of Carthage was relatively high. Many Jewish families belonged to the wealthiest strata of society. Jews there were mainly engaged in commerce. The export of grain and olive oil from the province of Africa Propria was under almost complete control of large Jewish shipowners living in Rome and united in the naviculari corporation.