United Mexican States. United States of Mexico - history of the country Mexico official language of the country

Mexican United States.

The name of the country comes from the name of the capital, which originates from the name of the supreme god of the Aztecs - Mexitli.

Mexico area. 1964 400 km2.

Population of Mexico. 101879 thousand people

Location of Mexico. Mexico is a country in . In the north and east it borders with the United States of America, in the south - with and. In the east it is washed by the Gulf of Mexico and, in the west -. The state also owns several offshore islands.

Administrative divisions of Mexico. The state is a federation of 31 states and a capital.

Mexico form of government. A republic with a federal government structure.

Head of State of Mexico. President, elected for a term of 5 years.

Mexico's highest legislative body. Bicameral National Congress - Senate and Chamber of Deputies.

Supreme executive body of Mexico. Government.

Major cities in Mexico. Guadalajara, Monterrey, Puebla, Ciudad Juarez, Leon, Tijuana.

National language of Mexico. Spanish.

Mexican United States, state V S.-W. parts of the North America. In 1821 G. independence declared Spanish colonies of New Spain. The resulting new state took the name Mexico City (Spanish Mexico, Mejico) named after the capital of the state, Mexico City (Spanish Mexico, Mejico) . In Russia, the name of the country is traditionally used in a form that differs from the name of the city.

Geographical names of the world: Toponymic dictionary. - M: AST. Pospelov E.M. 2001.

Mexico

(Mexico, name from them. the supreme god of the Aztecs - Mexitli), a state in the South. America, washed in the west by the Pacific Ocean, and in the east by the Atlantic Ocean. Pl. 1964.4 thousand km², divided into 31 states and the capital federal district. Population 101.9 million people. (2001), capital – Mexico City ; other major cities: Guadalajara , Monterrey , Puebla , Leon , Ciudad Juarez . Long before the arrival of Europeans, Indian civilizations existed here, among which the Toltecs and Mayans stood out; from the 15th century - a powerful Aztec state with its capital Tenochtitlan. Colonization of Mexico by Spanish conquistadors (E. Cortes) began in 1519; in 1521 Tenochtitlan was captured, at the end of the 16th century. - the whole country, and for three centuries M. was a colony of Spain. In 1810, the struggle for independence began, which was proclaimed in 1821. Since 1824 - a federal republic Mexican United States ; the head of state is the president; Legislative power belongs to the National Congress, consisting of the Chamber of Deputies and the Senate. As a result of the wars of 1846–48. More than 1/2 of the territory went to the USA.
More than 2/3 of the territory – Mexican Highlands . Open to the north, it is limited to the east, south, and west by a powerful wall of mountain ranges. Dissected by deep river canyons, they drop steeply to the adjacent coastal plains: Zap. Sierra Madre - To California Hall. , on the other side of which there is a narrow mountainous peninsula California ; East Sierra Madre – to the coastal lowlands. Mexican hall. ; to the south - Transverse Volcanic Sierra (volcanoes Orizaba , Popocatepetl , Colima, etc.) separates the highlands from the South Mountains. M.; Mountains rise parallel to the Pacific coast South Sierra Madre and Chiapas. The most significant plains are the Mexican lowland. and the karst plain of the Yucatan Peninsula with large caves ( Huatla). High seismicity. The climate in the north is subtropical, dry continental with sharp changes in seasonal and daily temperatures; in the rest of the hour - tropical, trade wind: humid on the windward east. mountain slopes and southeast. plains and dry in the west. More than 1/2 of the territory is arid areas. Rapid rapids rivers with large reserves of hydro resources are navigable only in the lower reaches; Ch. are used arr. for irrigation. The largest river (border with the USA) – Rio Bravo del Norte ; to the southwest. – volcanic and tectonic lakes (the largest – Chapala ). 14% of the territory is covered by forests: on the Caribbean coast - humid tropical evergreens; in the Pacific - variably humid deciduous tropical; in the mountains framing the Mexican Highlands, deciduous and mixed forests of the subtropics and temperate zone. On the highlands there is semi-desert and desert vegetation: cacti, agaves, yuccas. Over 50 national parks
Mexicans are a nation formed as a result of the mixing of Indians and Spanish settlers. 55% - Spanish-Indian mestizos; 29% - Indians (mostly concentrated in the central and southern regions; partially retain their languages ​​and cultural isolation); 15% are descendants of Europeans. Official language – Spanish. The predominant religion is Catholicism. City dwellers 73% (1995). M. is one of the leading oil producers. and oil-exporting countries of the world (fields on the coast of the Gulf of Mexico and on its shelf). Natural resources are also mined. gas, silver, fluorspar (among the world's main producers), lead, zinc, copper, manganese, sulfur, etc. Ferrous and non-ferrous metallurgy; oil refinery, chemical and petrochemical industry; machining and metalworking. Textile, sewing, leather footwear, food industry Up to 2/3 processing The industry is concentrated in Mexico City, Monterrey and Guadalajara. Main rural households crops: corn, wheat, sorghum, beans, rice, coffee, sugar. reed, henequen (type of agave); tomatoes, pineapples, bananas, watermelons, melons, mangoes, etc. Pasture-raised meat and wool cattle. Fishing, marine fisheries. Crafts: stone carving, pottery, fabric making, glassware, silver jewelry. Significant bargaining. fleet (approx. 50% - tankers). Main ports to the east. coast: Veracruz, Tampico, Coatzacoalcos; to the west: Salina Cruz, Guaymas. M. is a country of ancient culture that has made a valuable contribution to the development of world civilization. A number of the largest high fur boots; museums in Mexico City, Merida, Puebla and other cities. The following artists received worldwide recognition: D. Rivera and D. Siqueiros; writers: X. Rulfo and C. Fuentes. Tourists are attracted by: Pacific seaside resorts ( Acapulco ), miner. and hot sulfur springs; monuments of Indian culture (near Mexico City the remains of the city of Teotihuacan - in the 9th–10th centuries the capital of the Toltec Indians, with the grandiose pyramids of the Sun and Moon, temples, palaces, stadiums, observatories, wall paintings; centers of Mayan, Aztec culture, etc.); bullfight (rodeo), art. crafts, traveling folk orchestras "Mariachi", architect. monuments of the 16th–19th centuries. Cash unit – new peso.

Dictionary of modern geographical names. - Ekaterinburg: U-Factoria. Under the general editorship of academician. V. M. Kotlyakova. 2006 .

United Mexican States, a state occupying the northern, widest part of the isthmus that extends south of the US border and connects North America with South America. In the west, the shores of Mexico are washed by the waters of the Pacific Ocean and the Gulf of California, in the east - by the Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean Sea; in the south it borders Guatemala and Belize. Mexico was the cradle of ancient civilizations in the New World. Now it is home to a fifth of the total population of Latin America.
NATURE
Terrain. Most of Mexico is occupied by the Mexican Highlands, passing in the north into the high plains and plateaus of Texas and New Mexico; from the east, west and south it is surrounded by deeply dissected mountain ranges. The central part of this highland consists of vast depressions - bolsons - with gentle slopes; the block ridges separating them are often topped with volcanoes. The surface of the plateau gradually rises to the south and forms a wedge at approximately 19–20° S. in the volcanic zone, where the Transverse Volcanic Sierra ridge extends in the latitudinal direction. The northern part of the plateau, the Northern Mesa, is formed by merged bolsons, depressions with salt marshes or salt lakes in the center; the largest of them are Bolson de Mapimi, the bottom of which is located at an altitude of 900 m above sea level, and Bolson de Mairan (1100 m). Above the general level of the plateau, block mountains rise sharply to a height of up to 900 m. Most of this desert region is drainless; only in the north flows the largest river in Mexico, the Rio Bravo del Norte (called the Rio Grande in the USA) and its only tributary, the Conchos. Further to the south the surface of the highlands rises; Numerous intermountain depressions are located here at elevations of 1800–2400 m above sea level. and are separated by elevated, arid plateaus, above which blocky ridges rise several hundred meters. In the extreme south of the highlands there is the so-called Central region, which is the center of the political and economic life of the country, where the capital is located and most of the population is concentrated. The relief of this area clearly shows basins, the bottoms of which are at a level of 1500–2600 m; all of them, with the exception of the Valley of Mexico, where the capital is located, are drained by rivers belonging to the basins of the Pacific and Atlantic oceans. The basins are separated by hilly ridges of soft outlines, cut by deep and narrow river valleys. The Transverse Volcanic Sierra, formed by almost merged volcanic cones, rises sharply above the surface of the plateau, limiting it from the south. Here are the highest peaks: Orizaba (Citlaltepetl), 5610 m; Popocatepetl, 5452 m; Iztaccihuatl, 5286 m; Nevado de Toluca, 4392 m; Malinche, 4461 m, and Nevado de Colima, 4265 m. In the Valley of Mexico, 80 km long and approx. wide. 50 km there were once five shallow lakes with marshy shores; the largest of them was Lake Texcoco, in the center of which, on the island, was the capital of the Aztecs, Tenochtitlan. Over time, the lake was drained and in its place is the modern capital, Mexico City. The largest river in the Central region, the Lerma River, flows through the Toluca, Guanajuato and Jalisco depressions and flows into Lake Chapala, which drains into the Pacific Ocean through the river. Rio Grande de Santiago. Other depressions - Aguascalientes and Puebla - are also drained by rivers of the Pacific Ocean basin.
The western border of the highlands is formed by the Sierra Madre Occidental mountain system, reaching 160 km in width and in some places rising above 3000 m. This is one of the most powerful and difficult mountain barriers in the Western Hemisphere. The railroad connecting Central Mesa with the Pacific Coast, like the highway, skirts these mountains from the south and rises to the city of Guadalajara. It was not until 1961 that a railway line was built from Chihuahua to the coast - the first railway to cross the Sierra Madre Occidental mountains; that same year, a paved road was completed connecting Durango and the port of Mazatlán. The mountain system in the east of the highlands, the Sierra Madre Oriental, is relatively easier to navigate. The most convenient routes through it are through Monterrey in the north and Veracruz in the southeast. The Pan-American Highway, starting from the city of Nuevo Laredo on the US-Mexico border, follows the eastern foothills of the mountains to approximately the latitude of the city of Tampico and then rises sharply into the mountains and crosses the central mountain range. In the south, the zone of deeply dissected mountainous relief is much wider than in the west and east of the highlands. The Transverse Volcanic Sierra breaks off with a steep ledge to the tectonic basin of the Balsas River, which extends deeply into the mountainous region; even at a great distance from the ocean, on the meridian of Mexico City, the valley bottom is only approx. 500 m above sea level South of the Balsas Valley is the region of the dissected Guerrero and Oaxaca plateaus, collectively known as the Sierra Madre South; The erosive activity of watercourses has created a complex network of deep valleys and steep ridges here, leaving almost no flat areas. This southern mountainous region, which is generally accepted to form the southern terminus of the geological structures of North America, ends in steep escarpments facing the Pacific Ocean and the low-lying Isthmus of Tehuantepec.
The three main physiographic regions outside the mountainous region described above are the northern Pacific Coast, which includes the California Peninsula, or Baja California; Mexican lowland and Yucatan Peninsula; and the Chiapas mountain range, located between the Isthmus of Tehuantepec and the border of Guatemala. Most of the territory, located in the northern part of the Pacific coast and separated from the rest of the country by the inaccessible Sierra Madre Oriental mountains, is desert. The main elements of the surface - the Sonoran Desert, a depression located on the northern extension of the Gulf of California and in some places lowered below sea level, and the block mountains of the California Peninsula - continue north into the United States. The vast arid terrace-like surfaces of the California Peninsula for the most part do not have watercourses, but in the southern part of the mainland coast of the Gulf of California, mountain spurs and drainage depressions alternate with flat-bottomed valleys of rivers flowing from the mountains. The Mexican Gulf Lowland is widest in the north, where it meets the coastal plains of Texas. Further south, from Tampico to the northern edge of the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, it is a narrow marshy coastal strip, and even further it expands and merges with the low-lying limestone plain of the Yucatan Peninsula. On the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, the distance between the Gulf of Mexico and the Pacific Ocean is only 210 km, and the highest altitude is 240 m. The mountainous region of Chiapas structurally belongs to Central America. In this area, all the main landforms are parallel to the Pacific coast: a narrow coastal lowland; the Sierra Madre de Chiapas ridge rising steeply above it, up to 2400 m high; the Chiapas rift valley, the bottom of which is located at 450–900 m above sea level, drained by tributaries of the Grijalva River; finally, a series of blocky, deeply dissected mountain ranges with a height in some places of more than 3000 m.
Climate. Almost half of Mexico's entire territory has an arid or semiarid climate. Dry conditions occur throughout the northern region along the US border, from the Pacific Ocean to the Gulf of Mexico, and extend into the central highlands south to approximately 22°N. Further south, precipitation gradually increases, reaching 580 mm per year in Mexico City and 890 mm per year in the Puebla Depression. Only the Gulf Coast states of Veracruz and Tabasco and the Pacific coast of Chiapas receive sufficient rain throughout the year. Most of the precipitation falls in summer; winters are relatively dry. Temperatures and vegetation vary with altitude. In Mexico there is a hot zone - the so-called. tierra caliente – located from sea level to approximately 600 m or slightly higher; the temperate zone - tierra templada - extends above it, to a height of approx. 1850 m, and even higher, up to the snow line (3950–4550 m) there are the so-called. “cold lands” (tierra fría). Most of the central highlands are at an altitude of 1200 to 2400 m above sea level, which corresponds to the upper part of the temperate zone and the lower part of the cold zone. Although seasonal temperature ranges are small and, with the exception of the far north, average approx. 8° C, daily variations are significant, and in the mountainous region the nights are usually cold. In the coastal lowlands, summer temperatures exceed 27° C. Particularly long and hot summers are typical for the lowlands adjacent to the Gulf of California.
Vegetable world. Due to little rainfall, the northern half of Mexico is covered with mesquite trees, cacti, yucca and the spiny Sarcobatus vermifolia. On the lower slopes of the Sierra Madre, turf grasses alternate with low-growing poplars and willows, and higher up among the grasses grow sparse oaks. The mountain range stretching along the California Peninsula is covered with pine woodlands, and the arid western coast is occupied by isolated cacti in the desert, mesquite trees and bizarre columnar fuquieria, which with a thick conical trunk (up to 6 m high) with several root-like branches resemble an inverted carrot. To the south along both coasts of Mexico, the lowland vegetation gradually changes from scrub and open grass grasslands to savanna woodlands, beginning at about the latitude of Tampico. To the south of Veracruz there is heavy rainfall, the coast is marshy with dense tropical jungle, interspersed in places with areas of damp savannah. Tropical rain forest covers the state of Tabasco, southern Yucatan and the open northern slopes of the Chiapas mountains. The north of Yucatan is occupied by semi-deciduous tropical forest, grasslands and shrubs. There are especially many species of agave here, one of which is Agave Furcreiformes ( Agave fourcroides) – produces “enequen” fiber, or “Yucatan sisal”, used for the manufacture of paper, rope and container fabric.
In the southern half of Mexico, climate and vegetation vary with altitude. The hot zone is covered with dense semi-deciduous forest. In the temperate zone, many subtropical evergreen species grow, to which oaks and other broad-leaved deciduous trees are mixed higher on the slopes. The lower zone of the cold belt is occupied by pine-oak forest, which at approx. 3050 m above sea level turns into pine-fir. Near the snow line, the highlands are covered with alpine meadows.
POPULATION
Demography. According to an estimate for 2004, the population of Mexico was 104.96 million people (in 1980 - 69,979 thousand people). Population growth over the past decades has been one of the highest in the world, averaging 3% annually. Population growth began to decline markedly in the early 1970s and stood at 1.8% per year in the late 1990s. This decline was due in large part to the government's efforts to implement the General Population Law passed in 1973. This law established a national population council to carry out a government family planning campaign, the goal of which was to reduce population growth by 2000 to 1% annually. In the early 1990s, one in five pregnancies in Mexico was terminated through illegal abortion. In 1995, the birth rate was less than 24.6 newborns per 1,000 population, and the mortality rate was 5.1 deaths per 1,000 inhabitants. Emigration to the United States also contributed to decreased population growth in Mexico.
The extremely rapid population growth from 1920 to 1998 was a new phenomenon in Mexico's recent history. The population of the country when it was conquered by the Spaniards was at least 4.5 million people, and perhaps reached 25 million people, but the conquest and subsequent colonial exploitation so destroyed Mexican society that by 1605 there was hardly one left in Mexico million people. It took at least two centuries to restore the population. In 1821 the population of Mexico was about 6–7 million people. The number of Mexicans more than doubled over the next 90 years to 15 million in 1910, but a decade of civil war reduced it to almost 14 million in 1921. Mexico's population boom began after World War II.
Ethnic origin and language. Pre-Columbian Mexico was characterized by great ethnic diversity. One of the scientists identified more than 700 tribal groups at the beginning of the conquest. These peoples spoke nearly 100 different languages ​​and dialects from twelve linguistic families.
In 1990, almost one million Indians spoke only 52 indigenous languages ​​and dialects. In addition, more than two million Indians spoke both their native language and Spanish. The main Indian languages ​​still spoken in Mexico are Nahuatl (the language of the Aztecs, the various dialects of which represent the largest linguistic body), Mixtec, Maya, Zapotec, Otomi, Totonac, Mazatec, Tzotzil, Tzendil, Mazahua, Mije, Huastec , Chinantec and Tarasco.
It is estimated that 300,000 Spaniards migrated to Mexico during three centuries of colonial rule. They intermarried with the Indians, and today mestizos predominate in Mexico's population. Most of the estimated fewer than 200,000 blacks brought in during the colonial period to work in the mines and plantations were assimilated by the local population.
There has been no large-scale immigration to Mexico since independence. However, there were two main periods of influx - during the reign of Díaz, when approx. 11 thousand Italian immigrants, and immediately after the Spanish Civil War (1936–1939), when approx. came here in search of political asylum. 25 thousand loyalist refugees. Small numbers of Chinese, Japanese, Germans, English, French and other Europeans also immigrated to Mexico. From the middle of the 20th century. the largest movements of people occurred between Mexico and the United States.
Population distribution. In 1990, as has been the case since pre-Columbian times, more than half the population (56%) was concentrated in the central region, which occupies less than 1/7 of the entire territory. This region has always been the political, economic and cultural core of Mexico. The rest of the population was distributed in 1990 among four regions in the following proportions: 1) North - 20%; 2) Baja California -2%; 3) southern part of the Pacific coast - 10%; and 4) Gulf of Mexico region - 12%.
In 1990 approx. 1/4 of the population lived in communities of less than 2,500 people and were considered rural, and ca. 75% lived in larger communities and were considered urban. Although the metropolitan areas of Mexico City, Guadalajara and Monterey occupy only 2% of the country's territory, they are home to 25% of its population. There are more than 100 thousand villages and hamlets, most of which have less than 400 inhabitants.
Although Mexico is primarily a country of small communities, there are strong trends towards urbanization and industrialization, which are expressed in the form of population growth and industrial development. Urban growth was particularly rapid in the Mexico City area, along the northern border, and in the oil boom areas of the Gulf Coast.
The highest concentration of population and industry is observed in the capital, Mexico City, whose population in 1997 was 8,489 thousand people. The Mexico City metropolitan area had 18.8 million inhabitants. The main regional urban and industrial centers are Guadalajara in the west, with a population of 1.6 million in 1995 and 3 million. in an urban agglomeration; Monterrey in the north, with a population of 1.1 million and an urban agglomeration of 2.7 million; and Puebla, southeast of the capital, with a population of 1.1 million.
The remaining major cities in Mexico with a population of more than 500 thousand people in 1995 include state capitals, ports and border communities: Ciudad Juarez (1 million people), Tijuana (992 thousand), San Luis Mexicali (696 thousand) , Culiacan (696 thousand), Acapulco (687 thousand), Chihuahua (628 thousand), Potosi (625 thousand), San Luis Potosi (625 thousand), Aguascalientes (582 thousand).
Religion. Since the forced conversion to Christianity by the Spanish conquistadors, the vast majority of Mexicans - in 1990 almost 90% - have been, at least formally, Roman Catholics. Nevertheless, Mexico is characterized by an extremely active anticlerical tradition. Mexican revolutionaries waged a very long and often bitter struggle against the church hierarchy, which until the 1850s owned almost half of Mexico's land, controlled almost all schools and hospitals, and functioned effectively as a state within a state. Under the Mexican constitution, religious organizations are prohibited from owning land or operating schools; monastic orders are prohibited; religious services can only be held inside church buildings owned by the state; and clergy are prohibited from voting or commenting publicly on political issues. However, since the 1940s, the Catholic hierarchy abandoned harsh forms of opposition to the Mexican Revolution, and the government suspended the implementation of anti-clerical laws. More than 3% of Mexicans adhere to some form of Protestantism, and there are small but thriving Jewish and Baha'i communities.
GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS
Constitution. Mexico had three main laws. The Constitution of 1824 established a federal system, the model for which was the federal system of the United States. The Constitution of 1857 provided many political and civil rights. The current constitution, which was proclaimed on February 5, 1917, retained the liberal democratic character and a significant part of the document of 1857, but also contained revolutionary provisions.
The 1917 document included the principles of agrarian reform, the right to work, the principles of social justice, nationalism and anti-clericalism. This document deprived officials of all major political organizations of the right to re-election for a second term and greatly strengthened executive power.
Federal power.
Executive power. Officially, Mexico has a federal form of government. In fact, political power is concentrated in the hands of the national government in Mexico City. Executive power is vested in the president, who is elected by direct universal suffrage for a single six-year term. The chief executive must be at least 35 years old, have lived in the country for the year preceding the election, and be of Mexican descent. New elections are called if the president dies or is unable to serve during the first two years of his term.
The President of Mexico since 2000 is Vicente Fox Quesada. Born in 1942, he studied management in Mexico City and Harvard University, then worked for the Coca-Cola concern, where he was responsible for work in Central America, founded an agricultural company and his own factory. In 1987 he joined the conservative National Action Party. In 1988, Fox was elected to Congress, and in 1995 he won the gubernatorial elections in the state of Guanajuato.
The Cabinet consists of 19 government departments: Interior, Foreign Affairs, Defense, Navy, Finance, Energy and Mining, Commerce, Agriculture and Water Resources, Communications and Transport, Social Development, Education, Labor and Welfare, Presidential administration, agrarian reform, health and welfare, tourism, fisheries, justice and the General Accounting Office.
Legislature. The Constitution vests legislative power in a bicameral Congress. The lower house, or chamber of deputies, consists of 500 members. Voters elect deputies for a three-year term on the basis of universal suffrage: one deputy for every 250 thousand people or for the part of it that exceeds 125 thousand people. Of the 500 deputies, 300 are elected from single-mandate constituencies; the remaining 200 people are based on proportional representation. The Upper House, or Senate, consists of 128 members, 4 members from each state and the Federal Capital District, elected by direct popular vote to serve six-year terms, with a full rotation of its members every six years. The 1993 reform gives opposition parties at least 25% of the seats in the Senate. The Congress meets annually for a session that runs from September 1 to December 31. When parliament is in recess, legislative powers are vested in a standing committee appointed by both houses. The Constitution prohibits re-elections to all public offices, incl. in both houses of Congress. In 1993, a constitutional amendment was adopted excluding the so-called. “subordination clause”, according to which if a party receives 35% of the votes nationwide, it automatically receives a majority of seats in the Chamber of Deputies. This amendment prevents any party from gaining more than 315 seats in the lower house. Amendments to the constitution are adopted if they are approved by at least 325 deputies. Consequently, no party on its own can amend the fundamental law of the country. Until the early 1990s, congressional control of the executive branch existed only in theory; the president's power over the legislature was almost absolute—mainly because the ruling Institutional Revolutionary Party held the lion's share of seats in both houses. Mid-term elections in July 1997 deprived the ruling Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI) of a majority in the Chamber of Deputies, although they retained a majority of seats in the Senate. Since the 2000 elections, no party has a majority in Congress.
Judicial system. At the head of the federal judicial system is the Supreme Court, consisting of 21 judges, appointed by the president for a six-year term, with the consent of the Senate. The Supreme Court has judicial and administrative power over lower courts. The President also appoints judges to 12 mobile district courts consisting of three judges; in 9 unitary mobile district courts and 68 district courts consisting of one judge. Courts of special jurisdiction were created by law, incl. tax court and arbitration department, responsible for resolving labor disputes.
State authorities. Mexico consists of 31 states and one federal district. The Central Region covers the Federal District and the states of Aguascalientes, Guanajuato, Hidalgo, Jalisco, Mexico City, Michoacan, Morelos, Puebla, Queretaro and Tlaxcala. The northern, largest region, consists of the states of Coahuila, Chihuahua, Durango, Nuevo Leon, San Luis Potosi, Tamaulipas and Zacatecas. The North Pacific region includes the states of Baja California Norte, Baja California Sur, Nayarit, Sinaloa and Sonora. The South Pacific region includes the states of Colima, Chiapas, Guerrero and Oaxaca. The Gulf of Mexico region consists of the states of Campeche, Quintana Roo, Tabasco, Veracruz and Yucatan.
The Constitution gives the states powers that the central government does not have, although in practice the Mexican states have limited real power.
Political parties. Mexico has had a democratic constitution since 1917. Since the 1920s, the country has officially had a multi-party system. However, until the 1990s, the ruling government enjoyed a real monopoly on power. Institutional Revolutionary Party, created in 1929 and called the National Revolutionary Party until 1938, and the Mexican Revolutionary Party until 1946.
The party was formed as an association of government groups, initially uniting politicians and government officials and aiming to unite the diverse forces that took part in the Mexican Revolution - from the poorest peasantry to the richest entrepreneurs. In 1938, it was reorganized by President Lazaro Cardenas, giving the party a mass character. Four sectors were created - peasant, represented by the National Peasant Confederation, worker (based on the Confederation of Mexican Workers), popular (individual members) and military (liquidated in 1940). Over the years of the ruling party's existence, it has almost merged with state structures, and its activities were largely financed from the state budget. The PRI enjoyed the full support of the media. The PRI nomenklatura skillfully manipulated the course and results of the elections.
Ideologically, the PRI proclaimed its loyalty to the ideals of the Mexican Revolution, which it considered “permanent” and continuing “institutionally.” The party called for harmony of class interests and peaceful resolution of social disputes and contradictions. She advocated active government intervention in the economy and state control over the main sectors of the economy. The PRI is an observer in the Socialist International.
In the 1980s, the PRI leadership abandoned its previous statist ideas and began to pursue neoliberal economic policies, privatizing the public sector, actively attracting foreign investment, and seeking to accelerate the country's integration into the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA). The party's reorientation caused increasing internal divisions, and in the late 1980s many prominent figures who disagreed with the new policies left the party. In 1992, the IRP proclaimed “social liberalism” as its ideology.
At the same time, the previously seemingly unshakable positions of the IRP in society began to fluctuate. Dissatisfaction with the economic course of the ruling party, as well as its monopoly on power, grew. After 1988, when the PRI candidate Carlos Salinas de Gortari won the presidential election with just over 50% of the vote, it remained the largest party, but lost political hegemony and was forced to introduce a number of political reforms, including the creation of the Federal Electoral Institute and the Federal Electoral Tribunal in 1990, expanding opposition representation in Congress, regulating campaign finance, and providing more equal opportunities for parties' access to the media (1996).
In the late 1990s, under the influence of the deteriorating socio-economic situation and political instability, the social democratic wing strengthened in the IRP. She continued to advocate market reforms, but at the same time defended the leading role of state economic regulation, the implementation of broad social programs, and the development of democracy in all areas.
Political fluctuations did not save the PRI from losing political power. In 1994, its presidential candidate Ernesto Zedillo still managed to win the presidential election, but already in 1997 the party lost its majority in Congress. In 2000, the PRI candidate lost the presidential election and she went into opposition. In the 2003 congressional elections, the PRI was again successful, and it regained its position as the most powerful political force in the country.
National Action Party (NAP) – founded in 1939 by conservatives dissatisfied with the transformations of President L. Cardenas. She spoke out in defense of private property and the basic principles of Catholicism. The PAP condemned the separation of church and state, nationalization and other measures of state regulation of the economy. In the 1950s - 1960s, the party adopted the ideas of Christian humanism and became closer to international Christian democracy (the MHP is part of the International of Christian Democratic Parties). In the ranks of the party there was a sharp struggle between the traditional conservative and moderate reformist wings. In the 1980s, the PAP began to advocate under the banner of democratization of the political and electoral system, and carried out protests (hunger strikes, blockades of transport routes, seizure of municipalities). In the 1990s, the party became even more vocal in criticizing the ruling PRI for its “inconsistency” in pursuing neoliberal policies. Combining economic neoliberalism and neoconservatism in politics, the PAP demanded the maximum development of private initiative, even greater privatization and reduction of government regulation, and strengthening cooperation with the Catholic Church. The party believed that the state can solve social issues only where private initiative is impossible or insufficient.
In the 1980s, the PAP received 15–18% of the vote in elections. In 1989, its candidate managed to win the post of governor for the first time (in Baja California). In the 1990s, the party won gubernatorial elections in the states of Chihuahua, Jalisco, Guanajuato, Nuevo Leon, Queretaro and Sinaloa. In 1997, she won the position of the leading opposition force from the left, and in 2000, MHP candidate Vicente Fox won the presidential election. Since that time it has become the ruling party of Mexico.
Party of Democratic Revolution (PDR) – Mexico's leading leftist opposition party. Founded in 1989 on the initiative of former presidential candidate Cuatemoc Cardenas. C. Cárdenas, son of Lázaro Cárdenas (President of Mexico in 1936–1940) and leader of the “Democratic Current” in the Institutional Revolutionary Party, left the PRI in 1987, nominated his candidacy for president from the National Democratic Front, a coalition of left-wing and center parties, and gathered 1988 over 31% of the vote. The PDR was formed from supporters of Cardenas, the Mexican Socialist Party (created in 1987 by Mexican communists and other leftist organizations) and other movements. The party declared itself the heir to the democratic traditions of the Mexican Revolution, a nationalist, democratic and people's party. She advocated “the independence of the country, including in the economic field, for political and democratic reforms, decentralization and respect for human rights. The PDR criticized the neoliberal policies of the authorities and their antisocial consequences.”
The PDR joined the Socialist International. However, it is very heterogeneous ideologically, including social democrats, socialists, former communists, Trotskyists, nationalists and populists. Until 1994, she refused to cooperate with the ruling PDR on any issues. There were clashes between supporters of both parties. In subsequent years, the party leadership took a more moderate position: it began to cooperate with the IRP in carrying out political reforms, and softened criticism of the country’s integration into the world market and privatization.
Despite the early successes of Cardenas and his supporters in the late 1980s, the PDR failed to establish itself as the leading opposition party in the 1990s; she had to cede this role to the PND. However, its position is strong in the federal district and some states of the country. In 1997, C. Cardenas was elected mayor of the capital. In 2000, the population elected another PDR member, Lopez Obrador, to this post.
In the general elections of 2000, the PDR led the Alliance for Mexico, which also included Labor Party, Convergence for Democracy, Social Alliance Party And Nationalist Society Party.
Green Ecological Party of Mexico (ZEPM)– formed in 1980 as the National Environmental Alliance; in 1986 it was reorganized into the Mexican Green Party and in 1988 it supported the candidacy of C. Cardenas in the presidential elections. In 1993 it was officially registered as ZEPM.
He advocates the preservation of nature and the environment, a return to traditional cultural values ​​and pacifism. The fundamental principles of the Mexican Greens, which refer to the ancient Indian view of nature, are love, justice and freedom for all living things on the planet. Socially, the party strives for self-sufficiency, decentralization and harmony between society and nature.
In the 2000 elections, the Mexican Greens acted in a bloc with the PAP in order to remove the PRI from power and open the way for further democratization of the country. In the congressional elections in 2003, they blocked with the PRI.
Labor Party (PT)- a socialist party founded in 1990 as a result of the unification of a number of former Trotskyist and Maoist organizations in the North of the country. The PT recognizes political pluralism and rejects ideological “dogmatism.” Advocates for the broad development of mass social movements, the fight against imperialism and rejection of the recommendations of international financial institutions, for the broad and comprehensive democratization of society. Recognizing the existence of various forms of property, the PT at the same time fights against monopolies, for social equality and justice. The goal of the PT is the destruction of capitalism through mass social movements, the creation of alternative bodies of popular “counter-power” and, in the long term, the achievement of a pluralistic, democratic and humane society of self-government. In the 2000 elections, the PT was blocked with the PDR and other left parties.
In addition to the main parties, there are many different political groups operating in Mexico: Social democracy(leftist organization), Democratic Center Party, Authentic Party of the Mexican Revolution(centrist, founded in 1957 by former generals and figures of the Mexican Revolution and defends the 1917 constitution, serving as one of the centers of gravity for opposition factions in the PRI), Socialist coalition, Trotskyist Socialist Workers Party,Socialist and Workers' Union and Workers' League for Socialism, Maoist Red Workers Party (Marxist-Leninist), former pro-Albanian Communist Party of Mexico (Marxist-Leninist),People's Democratic Revolutionary Party,International communist movement(left-communist), etc. There are scattered anarchist groups.
Various military-political groups and movements exist in the country and are fighting against the government. Largest – Zapatista National Liberation Army (EZLN), which in 1994 raised an armed uprising in the state of Chiapas. The EZLN advocates for democratic and social reforms, in defense of the rights of the Indian peoples of Mexico, against neoliberalism and free trade. She actively cooperates with the international anti-globalization movement. EZLN supporters from all over Mexico created a political movement - Zapatista National Liberation Front.
ECONOMY
Economic history. Being a Spanish colony for 300 years, Mexico was a cheap source of raw materials and a market for goods for Spain. These policies enriched Mexico's very small elite of Spaniards and Creoles (Mexicans of Spanish descent) but hampered economic development. The economy was based primarily on the cultivation of corn, beans, chili peppers and cattle for domestic consumption, the mining of silver and other minerals, and the cultivation of tobacco for export. It was heavily dependent on the use of labor from the local population, which consisted mainly of Indians (later mestizos). The Wars of Independence (1810–1821) and the ensuing instability devastated the country and slowed down investment. At the end of the 19th century. Dictator Porfirio Díaz (ruled 1876–1910) used lavish financial incentives to attract foreign investors, who began developing Mexico's oil fields and building railroads, highways, port facilities, telegraph lines, and power line systems. This sparked rapid economic development and the growth of a middle class that resented more favorable treatment for foreigners. As production of coffee, cotton, sugar cane and Mexican hemp increased due to the decline of subsistence agriculture, most peasants suffered as their community-owned lands, called "ejidos", were occupied by private landowners and they were forced to work on the plantations , who specialized in growing export crops, or leave the land all together. The movement to return the land to the peasants and against the economic domination of foreigners led to the outbreak of the 1910 revolution, which overthrew Diaz.
The new government took active steps to “Mexicanize” the economy. In the 1930s, President Lázaro Cárdenas nationalized the country's railroads, expropriated 17 foreign companies that controlled the oil industry, and implemented major land reform.
During World War II, the government began to create a domestic import substitution industry (ICI), a concept that spread widely throughout the Western Hemisphere as a result of the Great Depression. This strategy was built on the creation of protectionist barriers to encourage "nascent domestic industries" that would be able to produce goods that were previously purchased abroad. Other incentives for business development included tax incentives, low-interest loans, cheap electricity, a compliant trade union movement, and the construction of a vast network of highways, railroads, airports, and communications facilities. This government policy caused an “economic miracle”, which manifested itself in high rates of economic growth.
Mexico's economy began to improve in the early 1970s thanks to the discovery of large oil fields in Tabasco, Chiapas and the Bay of Campeche by Petroleos Mejicanos (Pemex), the state oil company, but soon found itself unable to service its huge foreign debt when oil prices began to fall during the economic recession of 1981–1982. Emergency loans from the US and international financial institutions, accompanied by a sharp depreciation of the peso and austerity policies, saved the country from bankruptcy.
Convinced that pursuing a policy of promoting domestic production to replace imports would hinder the country's development, President Miguel de la Madrid Hurtado (1982–1988) launched a reform aimed at eliminating protectionist barriers. De la Madrid and Salinas sought to obtain foreign loans, attract modern technology, encourage non-oil exports and fight inflation, and promoted Mexico's membership in the GATT.
In 1988, the conclusion of a free trade agreement between the United States and Canada prompted Salinas to work out a similar agreement that would include Mexico. Negotiations that lasted more than a year led to the creation of the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), which was approved by the US Congress in November 1993 and allowed free trade to extend not only to industrial but also to agricultural goods; household, transport, banking and investment services; and types of intellectual property such as copyrights, trademarks and computer software. The three states also agreed to implement environmental and labor laws, incl. child welfare, minimum wage and workplace safety laws. NAFTA came into effect on January 1, 1994.
Even before taking office on December 1, 1994, future President Ernesto Zedillo Ponce de Leon promised to “provide protection” for small businesses, mid-sized companies and farmers who could not compete with more efficient corporations in the United States and Canada.
Even before the new president began to fulfill his promises, he was faced with an economic downturn. A bloated trade deficit, a huge foreign debt and an increase in the money supply led to the depreciation of the peso. At the end of December 1994, Zedillo unveiled plans to limit wage growth, cut government spending and expand private participation in the Mexican economy. President Clinton developed a program for overcoming the crisis in early 1995; however, GDP contracted rapidly during this year by 6.2% amid a 52% rise in prices. Zedillo's tough policies improved the economy at the end of 1996, laying the foundation for growth in 1997 (4.8%) and 1998 (4.5%).
The recovery period for the Mexican economy did not last long, and oil prices soon began to fall. Although oil and petroleum products accounted for only 12% of export revenues in 1998, they fueled 1/3 of the federal budget. The revenue shortfall forced the finance minister to cut government spending three times during the year and significantly reduce the 1999 budget.
A more optimistic NAFTA encouraged greater trade across the continent. Mexico's bilateral trade with its partners grew by 67% between 1993 ($91 billion) and 1996 ($152 billion), although the balance of payments deficit began to widen in the late 1990s. Despite criticism from embittered nationalists, Zedillo continued to pursue privatization, focusing on telecommunications facilities, railways, ports, power plants and petrochemical plants.
National income. Mexico's gross domestic product (GDP) in 1997—the total output of marketable goods and services provided—was $402.5 billion, or $4,184 per capita. In 1997, industry accounted for 28.3% of GDP, services and trade - 65.3%, agriculture and fisheries - 6.1%. The annual growth in production volume of the Mexican economy was 6.2% in 1995, 5.1% in 1996, 7% in 1997, and 5.3% in 1998.
Economical geography. The industry is concentrated mainly in an area with an 80-kilometer radius from Mexico City and in the cities of Monterrey and Guadalajara. The industrial corridor stretches along much of Mexico's northern border. Oil production is concentrated on the east coast from Tampico to Villa Hermosa, with offshore drilling rigs in the Bay of Campeche. Most cattle ranches are located in the northern and central states, where most other mineral resources are concentrated. Low-profit production of corn, legumes, pumpkins, eggplants and chilean red peppers is located throughout the country, except in those areas where climate and natural vegetation (northern desert regions and forests in Tabasco, Yucatan and Chiapas) or territory (rocky mountain valleys of the Western Sierra) prevent it -Madre). Buffalo-drawn hoes and plows are still widely used by low-income peasant farms, which can rarely afford the more advanced agricultural machinery used by large landowners. Commercial agriculture is most developed and mechanized in areas north of the Valley of Mexico and on the northwestern slopes and valleys of the Sierra Madre Occidental, especially in the states of Sinaloa and Sonora, where fruits and vegetables grown in temperate climate zones, in particular tomatoes and melons. Tropical cash crops are grown on the central coast and in the south: sugar cane in the plains, coffee in the highlands, Mexican hemp in the Yucatan, and bananas, mangoes, guava, papaya and pineapples in several other areas.
Busy. In 1998, almost 38 million people in Mexico were of working age, of whom almost 5% were unemployed and another 35% worked part-time. The problem of finding a job stimulates a huge migration of people to Mexico City, state capitals and the United States. It is estimated that the number of people who migrated in search of work in the 1990s was 14 million. There are virtually no foreign workers in Mexico, except in the state of Chiapas, where seasonal workers from Guatemala work in agriculture. In the 1970s and 1980s, refugees from civil wars in Central America sought permanent employment in Chiapas and other parts of Mexico.
At the end of the 1990s, approx. 22% of Mexico's working population was employed in agriculture, 19% in industry, 13% in trade, 7% in construction, and the rest in the service sector.
Organization and planning of production. Since the revolution of 1910 and especially since the 1930s, the government has implemented a policy of "Mexicanization" in order to modernize the economy in accordance with national interests. Many large and foreign-owned estates were divided into parts and distributed among landless peasants, and hundreds of industrial enterprises were also nationalized.
To implement its Mexicanization policy, the government passed a series of laws and regulations that defined the type of ownership allowed in various industries. The production of electricity, the operation of railways, radio and telegraph communications, as well as the oil and petrochemical industries became state property. The broadcasting, automobile transportation, and lumber industries were to be owned entirely by Mexicans. Foreign investors were allowed to have only minor ownership interests in other industries, including iron and steel, fishing, mining (excluding oil) and food processing. Other economic activities, especially those involving imported components for re-export, could have an unlimited share of foreign ownership.
By the 1980s, the government owned or controlled 2/3 of the nation's output; had the power, depending on the situation, to abolish or strengthen restrictions on foreign capital; skillfully used various financial incentives or barriers, import licenses, protective tariffs and price controls on essential items (staple food, gasoline, telephone communications, water, electricity).
At the suggestion of the International Monetary Fund (IMF), the government decided to sell off state-owned companies and lift restrictions on foreign capital. In December 1993, the Mexican Congress passed a new law on foreign investment. This law provided more opportunities (not limited by the constitution) for foreign ownership, guaranteed a favorable climate for most foreign investors, eliminated the provision of regulatory documents for the implementation of their projects, and made it easier to obtain foreign investment permits. At the beginning of 1997, foreign direct investment in Mexico in industry was dominated by US firms with 56.2% of its total of $17.4 billion in 1994–1996.
Agriculture. In 1997, agriculture employed 22% of the workforce and contributed 6.1% of GDP, while in 1950 it employed 58% of the workforce and contributed 22.5% of GDP. Most production is concentrated on private commercial farms or ejidos, lands farmed under Mexico's traditional land tenure system, under which land is collectively owned by the peasant community. The ejidos were restored after the 1910 revolution and developed during the reign of Cárdenas (1934–1940). Although peasants had the right to use public land, they could not legally own or sell it. Such restrictions prevented those who occupied the land from using it as collateral for a bank loan or from entering into joint ventures with legal entities. Ok though. 2/3 of the rural population lived on these public lands (they accounted for almost half of all cultivated land), private peasant farms produced 70% of marketable food and most of the export crops. This situation led to criticism of the ejidos as an obstacle to agricultural development. In early 1992, the government began implementing a reform allowing farmers to enter into agreements under which they could rent, subdivide, or sell their farms. Some members of peasant communities even entered into joint venture agreements with multinational corporations, to which they provided land and labor in exchange for capital and technical assistance. Few of these businesses prospered, and a prolonged drought was followed by severe tropical storms that damaged the 1998 harvest.
The most important agricultural crops include wheat, rice, barley, maize and sorghum. Other important export crops include fruits and vegetables, especially tomatoes, oranges, mangoes and bananas. Coffee contributed 1.4% of export earnings in 1990.
Cattle farming in Mexico is concentrated in the north-central region, which exports large numbers of cattle to the United States. Beef and dairy products for Mexico's urbanized areas came primarily from the coastal region of the Gulf of Mexico, where zebu cattle are raised. Horses, mules, donkeys, sheep, goats and pigs are also of great importance in the country's livestock farming. The volume of livestock production meets the country's domestic needs for beef, pork, fresh milk, poultry and eggs, but milk powder is imported.
Fishing. Commercial fishing is well developed along the coasts of the Gulf of California and the Gulf of Mexico. Cooperatives predominate in this sector of the economy. In 1992, the total fish catch was 1.6 million tons. Most of the catch is consumed directly by residents of Mexico; the rest is processed and/or exported.
Forestry. Mexico's forests were cut down for fuel or for farming. Since the 1940s, a program of forest restoration has been implemented through the creation of national forest parks. In 1990, roundwood production was 22.2 million cubic meters. 70% of the wood was used as fuel. In terms of production and value, pine exceeded by almost 10 times all other tree species, such as mahogany, rosewood, logwood, light mahogany, kapok and fustic, mainly in the Isthmus of Tehuantepec and the Yucatan Peninsula. Other forest products include sapodilla chicles, bitumen, rosin and charcoal.
Minerals and mining. Mexico's mines and oil fields, once owned primarily by U.S. corporations, have now been largely nationalized. Mexico is one of the world's main producers of silver (2,536 tons in 1996) and fluorspar (480 thousand tons in 1997), as well as a major supplier of antimony, cadmium, manganese, mercury and zinc. In 1997, 170 thousand tons of lead, 360 thousand tons of copper and 2.3 million tons of sulfur were produced, as well as large quantities of gold, molybdenum, tungsten, tin, bismuth, uranium, barite and high-quality coking coal.
There are three main mining areas. In the north, Baja California and the states of Sonora, Sinaloa, Chihuahua, Coahuila, Nuevo Leon, Durango and Zacatecas are rich in silver, copper, coal, gold, iron ore, zinc, lead, molybdenum, barite, fluorspar, uranium and tungsten. On the Gulf Coast, the states of Veracruz, Tabasco and Campeche produce sulfur, aluminum and manganese. Significant amounts of the country's gold, manganese, fluorspar, lead and zinc are mined in the west-central states of Jalisco, Guerrero, Aguascalientes, Guanajuato, Hidalgo and San Luis Potosi.
Oil . Mexico is the world's fourth largest producer of crude oil and ranks fifth in proven hydrocarbon reserves, equal to 60.16 billion barrels of oil.
When at the beginning of the 20th century. Commercial oil production began, and it began to play an important role in the Mexican economy and its foreign economic relations. After the expropriation of foreign oil companies in 1938, the state-owned company Petroleos Mexico (Pemex) took advantage of a monopoly on the development, production, refining, transportation and sale of oil and natural gas. The original oil fields were located primarily between Veracruz and Tampico, but in the 1970s and 1980s new oil fields were discovered in Tabasco, offshore Campeche, and in Chiapas. Income from the sale of oil for export in 1982 amounted to 3/4 of Mexico's foreign exchange earnings, in 1998 - only 19%.
Mexico refused in 1991–1992 to open its oil sector to foreign companies during NAFTA negotiations. However, Pemex's need for $22 billion to $25 billion in investments in the mid-1990s led it to enter into contracts with private oil drilling companies, oil refining joint ventures and an offer to a state-owned company to sell a majority stake in petrochemical plants. This monopoly company reduced the number of its personnel from 215 thousand people in 1988 to 133 thousand people. in 1998.
Energy. In 1995, the installed capacity of Mexico's power plants was 31,600 MW, of which 54% were thermal power plants operating on oil or gas fuels, 6.64% on both types of fuel, 6% on coal, 28.8% on hydroelectric power plants, 2.38% – geothermal power plants, 2.1% – nuclear power plants.
Transport and communications. The lack of convenient transport communications, which was hampered by the country's terrain, hampered its economic development for a long time. New types of transportation systems and communications first connected Mexico City with several of the most important economic centers, such as the US border and the port of Veracruz. Mexico City is still the hub of all transport networks and communication systems that reach the most remote areas of the country.
The length of Mexico's railway network in 1996 was 26,623 km. The only national company that operates railways is Ferrocarriles Nacionales de Mexico (National Railways of Mexico). In 1992, the company transported 15 million passengers and almost 50 million tons of cargo.
The first stage of the Mexico City metro was opened in 1969. In 1991, the length of its tracks was 158 km, and further expansion of the network of its lines was planned. The company Sistema de transporte colectivo (Public Transport System) is a state-owned company.
The length of Mexico's highways is 247,440 km, of which 48.5 thousand km are paved and are considered main highways. The highway, running from the city of Ciudad Juarez (on the US border) to the city of Ciudad Cuauhtemoc (on the Guatemala border), is the main highway of the country. Other major roads run from Mexico City to Tijuana, Acapulco, Veracruz and Merida.
Mexico has two main airlines, Aeromexico and Mexicona, which have an extensive network within the country. They fly to the USA, the rest of Latin America and some airports in Europe. 32 international and 30 domestic airports are also served by numerous other international and local airlines.
Sea transport is traditionally concentrated in the ports of Veracruz and Acapulco. In addition, the country has large ports in Tampico, Coatzacoalcos, Progreso, Salina Cruz, Mazatlan, Manzanillo, Guaymas, Ensenada, La Paz and Santa Rosalia. In 1992, Mexico's merchant fleet consisted of 649 ships with a total capacity of 1.2 million tons.
Almost all remote villages have telephone, telegraph, radio and television. During Salinas's tenure, Telefonos de Mexico, which provides almost 98% of the national telephone service, was privatized. In 1996, a country with a population of 96.2 million people was served by only 8,826 thousand telephones.
Tourism. In 1995, Mexico was visited by approx. 20.1 million tourists, mainly from the USA. The government tried its best to attract tourists to the country, whose income from their stay was the main source of foreign currency.
Manufacturing industry. Much of Mexico's industry is based on the processing of natural resources, especially oil, and the primary processing of agricultural products. Mexico also produces a wide range of light industrial and durable goods, such as cars, and has a well-developed glass industry. Manufacturing industries are concentrated in Mexico City and the surrounding industrial zone, while the main iron and steel industries are located in the northern cities of Monterrey and Monclova and on the west coast. Mexico's steel mills meet domestic steel demand. In 1991, 5.9 million tons of steel were produced. The most important manufacturing products were automobiles, foodstuffs, iron and steel, chemicals, beverages, and electrical goods.
Cities along Mexico's northern border have a large number of export-only factories owned by foreign, mostly American industrial companies that are allowed to import raw materials or parts for re-export duty-free. These businesses in Mexico are called "maquiladoras". The main products are textiles, toys, electrical goods and electronics. US industrialists use Mexico as an "investment export platform" mainly because of its cheap, relatively skilled and large labor force. The Mexican government encourages them because they create a lot of jobs. Maquiladoras were almost unaffected by the economic crisis of 1995–1996, and their production growth rate was significantly higher than the growth rate of the country's economy as a whole. The opportunity for jobs in the maquiladoras brought a large influx of labor, mostly young women, into northern border cities.
National currency and banking. The currency of Mexico is the peso, issued by the Central Bank of Mexico, which is modeled after the US Federal Reserve and has extensive powers to control the money supply. Another leading financial institution is the Financial National Company, which manages the use of foreign capital in projects related to infrastructure development.
Foreign trade and payments. Until the 1980s, Mexico acted as an exporter of cheap raw materials and an importer of expensive manufactured goods. Although Mexico still imports many capital goods, complex engineering and technology necessary for the development of domestic industry, the country has sharply increased the export of its manufactured goods, the share of which increased from 38% in 1985 to 85.8% in 1997. Thus, in 1997, expenditures on imports amounted to $109,807 million, while export earnings were only $110,431 million. By September 1998, the deficit of $772.8 million replaced the previous profit (positive balance).
Public finances. Mexico, which typically suffered from budget deficits, joined Switzerland and Japan in the early 1990s as one of the top three countries to have budget surpluses. This notable achievement helped the country become a member of the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), which includes the developed countries of the world. During the first three months of 1994, the surplus in the public sector of the economy was $1.7 billion. Although government spending increased by 14.5%, budget revenues also increased, mainly due to improved tax collection and revenues from non-oil sectors of the economy. Despite the devaluation of the peso in 1995, Zedillo managed to maintain control over the growth of the money supply. As a result, the federal budget deficit was kept at 1.25% of GDP in 1996–1998.
CULTURE
Mexican culture was formed from a mixture of Spanish and Indian traditions. In the 20th century she was influenced by the culture of European countries and the USA.
In the pre-Columbian period, highly developed civilizations flourished in Mexico, creating magnificent examples of art and architecture and forming stable state formations.
The revolution of 1910–1917 was a turning point in the social and cultural development of Mexico. The powerful impulse of the awakened Indian culture found a response in all spheres of national life, including in the arts - especially in music, painting, decorative and applied arts, literature and architecture.
Architecture and fine arts. During the colonial period, Mexican architecture reached its highest degree of development. Under the leadership of Spanish architects, mostly clergy, the Indians erected many religious and secular buildings in the Renaissance and Baroque styles that prevailed in Spain at that time. Tiled decor gave the domes and facades a festive look. The walls of the temples were decorated with large-scale frescoes.
During the 19th century. There were no significant changes in the development of Mexican art. At the Paris World Exhibition of 1889, Mexico built its pavilion in the Moorish style, characteristic of 14th-century Spain. In 1909, on the eve of the fall of the dictatorship of Porfirio Díaz, the artist Diego Rivera (1886–1957) and the art theorist Doctor Atl (pseudonym of Gerardo Murillo, 1875–1964) returned to Mexico. By this time, two major figures had emerged in the national fine arts: the author of engravings, José Guadalupe Posada (1851–1913) and the painter Francisco Goitia (1884–1960).
In the early 1920s, the Minister of Education José Vasconcelos (1881–1958) commissioned a number of young artists to paint large-scale murals on the walls of some public buildings. These artists, called muralists (from the Spanish mura - wall painting) - Diego Rivera, Jose Clemente Orozco (1883-1949), David Alfaro Siqueiros (1896-1974), Rufino Tamayo (1899-1991), Jesus Guerrero Galvan (1910- 1973), Miguel Covarrubias (1904–1957) - tried to combine modern plastic arts with the themes and aesthetics of pre-Columbian Mexican cultures. The colossal frescoes and mosaics of the muralists are not so much paintings on the walls, but rather wall-pictures that create a truly architectural space. Mexican muralism had a huge impact on the art of all of Latin America, especially the countries of the Andean region. Wall paintings are still the most prestigious genre of Mexican painting. Among contemporary artists, the most famous is Luis Guevas (b. 1933)
A characteristic feature of modern Mexican architecture is the synthesis of the latest trends with the traditions of Indian architecture and the harmonious combination of steel, concrete, glass with wall paintings and mosaic panels. A striking example of this architecture is the University City, opened in 1954, which houses the National Autonomous University of Mexico. The 1968 Olympic Games, held in Mexico City, served as an incentive for the construction of a number of magnificent modern buildings and the restoration of masterpieces of colonial architecture.
Literature. From the pre-Columbian literature of Mexico, individual examples of epic, lyric and hymn poetry have survived to this day, mostly in translations into Spanish. Mexican literature proper begins to take shape in the early colonial period in the chronicles of the conquest. Prominent creators of this genre were the conquistadors Hernán Cortés (1485–1547) and Bernal Díaz del Castillo (c. 1492–1582), the monks Bernardino de Sahagún (1550–1590), Toribio Motolinia (1495–1569) and Juan de Torquemada. In Mexican literature of the 17th century, as in architecture, the baroque style prevailed, with its characteristic artificiality, excessive imagery and metaphor. Three figures stand out during the colonial period: the polymath prose writer Carlos Siguenza y Góngora (1645–1700), the great poetess Juana Inés de la Cruz (1648–1695), who earned the honorary title of “Tenth Muse,” and Juan Ruiz de Alarcón (1580). –1639), who went to Spain, where he became famous as one of the major playwrights of the Golden Age of Spanish literature.
In the 19th century Enlightenment liberal ideas came to the fore in national literature, forming the basis of the anti-colonial movement in Spanish America. These ideas permeate the work of José Joaquín Fernández de Lisardi (1776–1827), author of a number of journalistic works and the first Spanish American novel Periquillo Sarniento (Periquillo Sarniento, 1816). Mexican literature of the 19th century. developed mainly in line with romanticism and costumbrism (moral-descriptive genre); in the last third of the century, under the influence of positivism, a realistic tendency was formed. In the 1880s, the movement of Spanish American modernism emerged in Mexico, as in many other countries of the continent. Modernists updated well-worn romantic themes, professed the cult of beauty and strived for grace and refinement of form. The largest representatives of this movement in Mexican literature were the poets Salvador Diaz Miron (1853–1928), Manuel Gutierrez Najera (1859–1895) and Amado Nervo (1870–1928).
The revolution of 1910–1917 gave a powerful impetus to the development of Mexican literature and turned national prose towards the path of realism. The themes of social oppression and the heroes of the peons (peasants), representatives of the masses, came to the fore. In the 1930s, a movement emerged in Mexican prose known as the “novel of the Mexican Revolution.” The founder of this movement was Mariano Azuela (1873–1952); his novel Those below(Los abajo), created in 1916, became widely known in 1927. It was followed by Eagle and snake(El aguila y la serpiente, 1928) Martin Luis Guzman (1887–1976), Military camp(El Campamento, 1931) Gregorio Lopez y Fuentes (1897–1966), My horse, my dog, my gun(Mi caballo, mi perro, mi rifle, 1936) José Ruben Romero (1880–1952), Before the rain(Al filo del agua, 1947) Agustin Yañez (1904–1980) and many others. In the 1950s, Juan José Arreola (1918–2001), the author of philosophical and humorous miniatures, and the largest Mexican prose writer, one of the founders of the “new Latin American novel,” Juan Rulfo (1918–1986), appeared on the literary scene. His collection of short stories Plain in flames(La llana en llamas, 1953) and story Pedro Paramo(Pedro Paramo, 1955) were created in line with Latin American mythology and magical realism.
Contemporary Mexican fiction features two world-famous writers experimenting with the novel form. One of them is the winner of a number of prestigious literary awards, Carlos Fuentes (b. 1928), author of famous novels Death of Artemio Cruz(La muerte de Artemio Cruz, 1962), Skin change(Cambio de piel, 1967), Terra Nostra(Terra Nostra, 1975), Christopher the Unborn (Cristobal Nonato, 1987) and many others, as well as stories, novellas, essays, and journalistic works. Another is Fernando del Paso (b. 1935), who created acclaimed novels Jose Trigo(Jose Trigo, 1966), Palinur Mexican (Palinuro de Mexico, 1975) and News from the Empire(Noticias del imperio, 1987).
A radical renewal of the artistic language of Mexican poetry was begun by the poets of the Contemporaneos group (1928–1931), which included Jaime Torres Bodet (1902–1974), Carlos Pellicer (1899–1977), José Gorostiza (1901–1973), Salvador Novo (1904– 1974), Javier Villaurrutia (1904–1950), etc. Their endeavors were picked up and creatively developed by Ephraim Huerta (b. 1914) and Octavio Paz, Nobel Prize laureate in literature for 1990.
An important role in the literary process of Mexico in the 20th century. essayism played with its central theme of the search for Latin American and Mexican essence. Outstanding works in this genre were created by cultural philosophers José Vasconcelos (1881–1959), Alfonso Reyes (1889–1959), Antonio Caso (1883–1946), Samuel Ramos (1897–1959), Octavio Paz (1914–1998) and Leopoldo Sea ( 1912–2004).
Cinema and drama theatre. Mexico occupies a leading position in Latin American cinema. In the early 1980s, the country produced about a hundred feature-length films each year, which were then distributed throughout the Spanish-speaking world. International cinema awards were received by directors Emilio Fernandez, nicknamed “The Indian,” and the Rodriguez brothers, cameraman Gabriel Figueroa, as well as Spanish director Luis Buñuel, who came to Mexico in 1947 and created several films here that have gained worldwide fame. Mexican Mario Moreno, one of the most popular Latin American actors, resembles Charlie Chaplin with his pantomime and acting style.
In Mexican villages and provincial towns there is still a folk theater called “carpa” (literally “tent”, canvas canopy). This is a type of mobile tent where troupes of traveling comedians perform vaudeville. In 1956, the Department of Folk Theater was created at the National Institute of Fine Arts, which trained actors and directors for the “karpa”. Of the professional Mexican theaters, the largest are the capital's theaters "Jimenez Rueda", "Hidalgo", "Hola", "Reforma", "Insurgentes", Theater for Children and the puppet theater "Guignol".
The founder of modern Mexican drama was Rodolfo Ucigli (1905–1979), who created experimental theater in the late 1920s. From the 1940s to the 1960s, he wrote a number of satirical, historical and psychological dramas that were performed with great success on stages in Latin America. New principles of theatrical aesthetics were developed in their works by playwrights Javier Villaurrutia, Celestino Gorostiza (1904–1967), Mauricio Magdaleno (1906–1986), Salvador Novo and modern playwrights Emilio Carballido, Luis Basurto, Elena Garro, Wilberto Canton and Carlos Solórzano.
Music. The Mexican Indians had a highly developed musical culture. In his book Indian monarchy (Monarquia Indiana) Spanish chronicler and missionary Juan de Torquemada gives a vivid description of the shrill and rhythmic music of the Aztecs. The vocal and instrumental music of the Aztecs was based on pentatonic scales (approximately corresponding to the black keys of the piano) and did not know semitones. Aztec musical instruments included various types of drums, rattles made from dried fruits, scrapers, bells, flutes and sea shells with holes drilled in them that made sounds like a trombone. The Indians did not know string instruments. The Spaniards taught the Indians the diatonic scale, counterpoint and string playing.
Mexico's Creole folk music is rich and varied. Of the genres of Mexican folklore, the most famous is the corrido, a type of folk ballad. This song genre developed on the basis of the Spanish romance of the 15th–16th centuries, but acquired a deeply unique theme and style. It is built from quatrains with precise rhyme (as opposed to the assonant rhymes of the Spanish romance), performed to the accompaniment of a guitar with the repetition of melodic phrases of each verse. The extensive corps of corridos of the Mexican Revolution, which developed in the 1910s–1920s, became a classic of the genre.
Each Mexican province has its own characteristic song and choreographic genres. Such, for example, are the lively sandunga from Tehuantepec, the lively and cheerful Chiapanecas of the state of Chiapas, the Spanish-inspired La Llorona of Oaxaca, the Jarana of Yucatan, the huapango and bamba of the state of Veracruz, the Michoacan dance viejitos (lit. “old men”), during which boys dress up as old men, canacuas Urupana, son of Jalisco, folklore performance called "Moors and Christians", existing in the Valley of Mexico. In addition, alabados (great songs) and mañanitas (morning serenades), Christmas posadas and songs born of the revolution, such as the famous Cucaracha, Adelita And Valentina; as well as the song and dance genre of Jarabe, one of whose variants, Jarabe Tapatio, which originated in the state of Jalisco, became the national emblem of Mexico. The most picturesque moment of this dance is the woman’s dance on the brim of the man’s sombrero.
Original folk instruments are popular in Mexico. Mariachi instrumental ensembles have become widespread throughout the country, especially in the central zone. The core of the ensemble is usually two violins, a six-string guitar, a small five-string lute, a large five-string guitar (the so-called guitarron), to which a harp, trumpet and clarinet have sometimes been added. The wooden marimba xylophone is popular in southern Mexico.
In some areas, Indian songs, dances and ritual performances are preserved. Of the latter, the most interesting is an unusual folklore performance called “volador” (literally “flyer”): four men, tied with ropes by their feet to the top of a 30-meter pole, begin to spin in the air, gradually descending in a spiral to the ground. All this happens to the roar of drums and the piercing sounds of the chirimiya flute. The ceremonies of the Yaqui Indians are also very picturesque - “the deer dance” and “las pascolas”.
The magnificent folk ballet created in the early 1960s played a huge role in the dissemination and promotion of Mexican folklore abroad. This group combines skillfully stylized folk dance forms with authentic folk music.
Professional musical culture of Mexico in the 20th century. gave rise to a number of outstanding composers. In the 1920s, Carlos Chavez (1899–1978), setting out to renew Mexican music and give it a national character, began to use Indian themes, melodies and musical instruments in his compositions. Chavez was the founder and chief conductor of the National Symphony Orchestra (created in 1928), director of the Mexico City Conservatory (1928–1934); he toured extensively abroad and received international recognition. Chavez's endeavors were continued by famous composers Manuel Maria Ponce (1882–1948) and Silvestre Revueltas (1899–1940). Great contributions to the development of Mexican musical culture were made by Blas Galindo Dimas (1910–1993), director of the conservatory in 1947–1961, folklorist Vicente Toribio Mendoza (1894–1964), musicologist Otto Mayer-Serra (1904–1968), and composers Candelario Huizar (1883). –1970), Miguel Bernal Jimenez (1910–1956), José Pablo Moncayo (1912–1958), José Rolon (1883–1945), Rodolfo Alater, Luis Sandi and others.
Education. Secular education has been introduced in Mexico, which is not an obstacle to the activities of private religious schools. Despite the legally established free compulsory primary education, 9% of adolescents from 6 to 17 years old are not able to attend school due to financial difficulties. As of 1995, 330 thousand students studied at the Mexican National Autonomous University (founded in 1553). In addition to it, there are fifty more universities operating in the country. The Institute of Technology in Monterrey is considered one of the best.
The Mexican government is pursuing a policy of involving Indians in the sphere of modern civilization. For this purpose, cultural missions are created in Indian settlements, where several specialists of various profiles work - for example, a nurse, a teacher, a carpenter, an agronomist, a social worker. They visit nearby areas, study Indian customs and then pass on their knowledge to the Indians, but in such a way as not to undermine the foundations of their original culture. This program turned out to be so effective that, under the auspices of UNESCO, a Center for Fundamental Teacher Training was created on Lake Patzcuaro for other Latin American countries with a high percentage of Indian populations.
Museums and libraries. The capital is home to numerous museums, including the National Museum of Anthropology, the National Museum of History in Chapultepec Castle, the San Carlos Museum of Painting and Sculpture, the Natural History Museum and the National Museum, located in the National Palace in Zocalo Square in the city center.
Every university has a rich library. The Mexican National Library, founded in 1833, contains over 1 million volumes and has a valuable collection of rare books and documents.
Sport. The most popular sports are baseball, football, horse racing, bullfighting, jai alai (a Basque national ball game similar to handball), tennis, basketball, volleyball, golf and swimming. There are two bullfighting arenas built in Mexico City, one of them is the largest in the world. The National Stadium seats 80 thousand spectators, the new Olympic Stadium in the University City - 100 thousand spectators. A huge relief mural of Diego Rivera on the outside wall of the Olympic Stadium recreates the history of sports in Mexico.
Television and radio broadcasting. Mexico was the first Latin American country to begin broadcasting television. Many television programs are broadcast from the United States, but most are made in Mexico. Mexican television programs are distributed throughout Latin America and parts of the United States.
Press and book publishing. The most popular newspapers are Excelsior, an independent metropolitan conservative daily, Universal, Prensa, Esto (the most read newspaper with a daily circulation of more than 400 thousand copies), Uno Mas Uno, a small-circulation but prestigious publication of the leftist opposition) and Novedades (circulation 190 thousand), famous for its weekly cultural review. The leading newspapers of the provincial centers are El Norte, published in Monterrey, Sol de Tampico and Occidental, published in Guadalajara. The largest provincial newspapers are run by the government.
Among the numerous Mexican publishing houses, the Fondo de Cultural Economy, created in 1934 by a group of young intellectuals, stands out. The publishing house publishes literature of various profiles. In the early 1990s, the country published approx. 2500 titles. Mexican books are popular throughout the Spanish-speaking world.
STORY
Excavations in Tepespan, carried out in 1947, and in other places indicate that traces of human presence in Mexico date back to at least the 20th millennium BC. In the middle of the 1st millennium BC. In Central and Southern Mexico, sedentary cultures began to emerge, the economic basis of which was the cultivation of maize, beans and pumpkins.
Early civilizations. The ancient Mexican Olmec culture flourished from the 12th to 5th centuries. BC, with the centers of La Vente, Tres Zapotes and Cerro de las Mesas in the present states of Veracruz, Tabasco and Guerrero. The Olmec culture had a significant influence on the formation of the later classical civilizations of Mexico, which flourished from the 4th to 9th centuries. AD: on the cultures of Teotihuacan in the central Anahuac Valley; the Zapotecs in Oaxaca and Tehuantepec, centered on Monte Alban; Totonacs in the territory of the modern state of Veracruz, centered in El Tajin, and the highly developed Mayan civilization that developed in Southern Mexico and Guatemala. Maya achievements include a complex religious and mythological system, hieroglyphic writing, magnificent architecture, exquisite sculpture and decorative arts, extensive knowledge of mathematics and astronomy, and an accurate calendar.
These classical civilizations collapsed at approximately the same time. The exception is the Yucatan Maya, whose culture lasted until the Spanish conquest. In the 8th century. AD Central Mexico was invaded by conquerors from the north, the Toltecs. In the 9th–10th centuries. they created a vast state with the capital Tollan, or Tolyan (modern Tula), and conquered the Mayan country. On the territory of Yucatan, the Maya-Toltec state arose, the capital of which was in the 11th century. became Chichen Itza, and after its destruction in the 12th century. - Mayapan. The Zapotecs were pushed south by the Mixtecs, who also came from the north.
Around 12th century The Toltec state fell under the blows of the northern nomadic Nahua peoples. Among them were tenochkas, or mexicos (self-names of the Aztecs), who ca. 1325 founded their capital, Tenochtitlan, on the islands of Lake Texcoco on the site of present-day Mexico City. Through alliances and conquests, they significantly expanded their possessions, although in fact the so-called Aztec empire was an unification of city-states with villages and tribes freely joining them, subject to tribute. By the time the Spaniards arrived in Mexico, the Aztec emperor Montezuma (Moctezuma) II's possessions extended south to Oaxaca, west to Michoacán, and east to the Gulf of Mexico. Only the inhabitants of the neighboring cities of Tlaxcala and Texcoco and the Tarascans in the west managed to maintain their independence. The Aztecs elevated war to a cult and practiced mass human sacrifice. The Aztec culture borrowed much from the cultures of the conquered peoples. The further development of Aztec civilization was interrupted by the Spanish conquistadors.
Spanish conquest. Rumors of Mexico's riches attracted the attention of the Spanish conquistadors. The first recorded contact of Europeans with the peoples of Mesoamerica occurred in 1511, when a Spanish ship en route from Panama to the island of Hispaniola (modern Haiti) was shipwrecked off the Yucatan Peninsula. One of the surviving members of the team, Jeronimo de Aguilar, lived for a long time with the Mayans, learned their language and eight years later became a translator on the expedition of Hernán Cortés. The deliberate exploration and conquest of Mexico began in 1517 under the leadership of the governor of Cuba, Diego Velazquez. He sent three expeditions to the shores of the Gulf of Mexico: the first in 1517 was led by Francisco Hernandez de Cordova, the second (1518) by Juan de Grijalva and the third (1519) by Hernan Cortes.
At the last moment, the governor ordered Cortes to be replaced as commander, but on February 10, 1519, he arbitrarily sailed to Mexico on 11 ships that accommodated 550 people and 16 horses. In Yucatan, Cortez took Aguilar with him, and in the Tabascan country, an Indian slave girl, Malinche (later christened Marina), who served as his translator. On the Gulf Coast, he founded the settlement of Villa Rica de la Vera Cruz (lit. Rich City of the True Cross), which became a springboard for the conquest of the country. Having left the subordination of the governor of Cuba, Cortes declared himself captain general. In order to stop desertion, he burned his ships.
Cortez skillfully used the contradictions that tore apart the Aztec state, attracted the Tlaxcalans to his side and, with their help, took Tenochtitlan and conquered the empire in two years. Having established himself in the Valley of Mexico, he sent expeditions to western Mexico and Central America. In 1522, the Spanish Emperor Charles V highly appreciated the merits of Cortes: he approved him as captain general and governor of the conquered lands, granted him the title of Marquis del Valle de Oaxaca and assigned lands with an area of ​​64,750 square meters to his personal possession. km. with 100,000 Indians living on them.
Colonial period. In 1528, the Spanish crown limited the power of Cortes by sending an audience to Mexico - an administrative-judicial panel reporting directly to the king. In 1535, Mexico became part of the newly created Viceroyalty of New Spain. Antonio de Mendoza became the first viceroy, the personal representative of the Spanish monarch in New Spain; in 1564 he was replaced in office by Luis de Velasco. For three centuries, from 1521 to 1821, Mexico remained a colonial possession of Spain. Despite the active interaction of local and European traditions, culturally Mexican society presented a rather motley picture. The colonial economy was based on the exploitation of Indians, who were forced to work on their lands and mines. The Spaniards introduced new agricultural technologies and new crops into traditional Indian agriculture, including citrus fruits, wheat, sugar cane and olives, taught the Indians animal husbandry, began the systematic development of the earth's interior and created new mining centers - Guanajuato, Zacatecas, Pachuca, Taxco, etc.
The Roman Catholic Church became the most important instrument of political and cultural influence on the Indians. Its pioneering missionaries actually expanded the sphere of Spanish influence.
During the 18th century. The Bourbons, who ruled Spain, under the influence of the ideas of the Enlightenment, carried out a number of reforms in the colonies aimed at centralizing power and liberalizing the economy. Mexico produced outstanding administrators, including the outstanding viceroys Antonio Maria Bucareli (1771–1779) and Count Revillagigedo (1789–1794).
War for independence. The anti-colonial war in Mexico, which unfolded after the occupation of Spain by Napoleon's troops, developed under the influence of the Great French Revolution and the American War of Independence. At the same time, the liberation movement did not originate among the metropolitan Creoles (whites of American origin), but in the very heart of the mining region and in the initial stages had the character of almost a race war. The uprising, which began in the village of Dolores on September 16, 1810, was led by the priest Miguel Hidalgo (1753–1811). Obeying his call “Independence and death to the Spaniards!”, which went down in history as the “Cry of Dolores,” the rebels, mostly Indians and mestizos, moved towards the capital with the inspiration of the crusaders. The delusional and reckless Padre Hidalgo turned out to be a bad military leader, and ten months later he was captured by the Spaniards, defrocked and shot. September 16 is celebrated in Mexico as Independence Day, and Hidalgo is revered as a national hero.
The banner of the liberation struggle was taken up by another parish priest, a republican by conviction, Jose Maria Morelos (1765–1815), who showed extraordinary abilities as a military leader and organizer. The Chilpancing Congress (November 1813), convened on his initiative, adopted a declaration of Mexican independence. However, two years later Morelos suffered the same fate as his predecessor Hidalgo. Over the next five years, the independence movement in Mexico took on the character of guerrilla warfare under the leadership of local leaders such as Vicente Guerrero in Oaxaca or Guadalupe Victoria in the states of Puebla and Veracruz.
The success of the Spanish Liberal Revolution of 1820 convinced conservative Mexican Creoles that they should no longer rely on the mother country. The Creole elite of Mexican society joined the independence movement, which ensured its victory. Creole Colonel Agustin de Iturbide (1783–1824), who had once fought against Hidalgo, changed his political course, united his army with the forces of Guerrero and together with him on February 24, 1821 in the city of Iguala (modern Iguala de la Independencia) put forward a program called the Iguala Plan. This plan declared “three guarantees”: Mexican independence and the establishment of a constitutional monarchy, the preservation of the privileges of the Catholic Church and equal rights for Creoles and Spaniards. Without encountering serious resistance, Iturbide's army occupied Mexico City on September 27, and the next day the country's independence was proclaimed as part of the Iguala Plan.
Independent Mexico in the first half of the 19th century. Independence in itself did not ensure the consolidation of the nation and the formation of new political institutions. The caste-hierarchical structure of society remained unchanged, except for the fact that the Creoles replaced the Spaniards at the top of the social pyramid. The development of new social relations was hampered by the church with its privileges, the army command and large latifundists, who continued to expand their estates at the expense of Indian lands. The economy remained colonial in nature: it was entirely focused on food production and the extraction of precious metals. Therefore, many events in Mexican history can be seen as attempts to overcome the oppression of the colonial legacy, consolidate the nation and gain full independence.
Mexico emerged from the war of liberation greatly weakened - with an empty treasury, a destroyed economy, interrupted trade ties with Spain, and an enormously bloated bureaucracy and army. Internal political instability hampered the speedy resolution of these problems.
After the declaration of independence of Mexico, a provisional government was formed, but in May 1822 Iturbide carried out a coup d'état and crowned himself emperor under the name Augustine I. In early December 1822, the commander of the Veracruz garrison, Antonio Lopez de Santa Ana (1794–1876), rebelled and proclaimed a republic. He soon joined forces with the rebels of Guerrera and Victoria and in March 1823 forced Iturbide to abdicate and emigrate. The Founding Congress, convened in November of that year, consisted of the warring camps of liberals and conservatives. As a result, a compromise constitution was adopted: at the insistence of the liberals, Mexico was declared a federal republic like the United States, while the conservatives managed to establish the status of the Catholic religion as the official and only permitted in the country and preserve various kinds of privileges of the clergy and the military, including their immunity from civil courts.
The first legally elected president of Mexico was M. Guadalupe Victoria (1824–1828). In 1827, the conservatives rebelled, but were defeated. In 1829, the candidate from the liberal party, Vicente Guerrero, became president, abolishing slavery and repelling Spain's last attempt to restore its power in the former colony. Guerrero lasted in power for less than a year and was overthrown by conservatives in December 1829. Liberals responded to their opponents with another coup d'etat and in 1833 transferred power to Santa Ana.
This typical Latin American caudillo (leader, dictator) was re-elected as president five times and ruled the country himself or through figureheads for 22 years. He provided the country with internal political stability and economic growth, accompanied by an expansion of the middle class. However, Santa Ana's foreign policy led the country to national disaster. In the war with the United States, Mexico lost almost two-thirds of its territory - the current North American states of Arizona, California, Colorado, Nevada, New Mexico, Texas and Utah.
The United States' territorial claims to Mexico emerged at the very beginning of the 19th century; they assumed a threatening character in the late 1820s, when North American settlers began to penetrate into Texas in large numbers. The colonists experienced severe labor shortages on their plantations and sought to legalize the slave trade. To this end, in 1836 the Texans separated from Mexico and proclaimed Texas an independent republic, which was recognized by the United States in 1837. In 1845, the North American Congress adopted a resolution to include Texas in the United States as a slave state, and the next year, in response to protests from Mexico, declared war on it. Santa Ana suffered one defeat after another, until in September 1847 he surrendered the capital and signed an act of surrender.
According to the peace treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo (1848), imposed by the victors, Mexico gave its northern provinces to the United States. This defeat had disastrous consequences for the Mexican economy, not to mention a difficult moral legacy in relations between neighboring countries. But Mexico's territorial losses did not end there. In 1853, Santa Ana, now back in power, sold the Mesilla Valley to the United States under the Gadsden Treaty. In 1854, the governor of the state of Guerrero, Juan Alvarez, and the head of customs, Ignacio Comonfort, rebelled and spoke in the town of Ayutla (modern Ayutla de los Libes) with a call for the overthrow of the dictatorship of Santa Ana. The rebellion quickly grew into a revolution, and in 1855 the dictator was expelled from the country.
The period of reforms. The liberal reforms carried out by Benito Juárez (1806–1872) represented the second true revolution in Mexican history. In his activities, Juarez relied on the ideologists of the middle class - lawyers, journalists, intellectuals, small entrepreneurs who sought to create a democratic federal republic, end the privileges of the clergy and the military, ensure economic prosperity of the state by redistributing the colossal wealth of the church, and, most importantly, create a class of small owners who will be able to resist the dominance of large landowners and form the backbone of a democratic society. In essence, it was a bourgeois revolution carried out by mestizos.
As Minister of Justice, Juarez carried out reforms in 1855 and 1856. Of these, the most important were the so-called. the Juarez Law, which abolished the judicial privileges of the military and clergy, and the Lerdo Law, which deprived the church of the right to own land and real estate, with the exception of places of worship and the homes of monks. The law leased land estates to civil corporations, which, despite the resistance of Juarez, was used to seize Indian communal lands, especially later, during the era of the dictatorship of P. Diaz.
The culmination of the liberals' reform activities was the adoption of the progressive constitution of 1857, which caused a three-year bloody civil war. In this war, the United States supported Juarez, who became president of Mexico in 1858. England, France and Spain patronized the opposition, who were ultimately defeated. During the war, Juarez accepted the so-called package. “Reform laws” proclaiming the separation of church and state and the nationalization of church property, introducing civil marriage, etc. Subsequently, in the early 1870s, these laws were introduced into the constitution.
The main problem of the Juarez government was foreign debts. After the Mexican Congress announced a two-year suspension of payments on foreign debts in July 1861, representatives of England, France and Spain signed a convention in London on armed intervention in Mexico. At the beginning of 1862, the combined forces of the three states occupied the most important Mexican ports in order to collect customs duties and compensate for the damage suffered. The United States at this time was engulfed in civil war and did not have the opportunity to put the Monroe Doctrine into practice. Spain and England soon withdrew their troops from Mexico, Napoleon III moved an expeditionary force to the capital. The French were defeated at the Battle of Pueblo on May 5, 1862 (this date became a national holiday in Mexico). However, the next year the French strengthened their army, took the capital and, with the support of Mexican conservatives, after a masquerade plebiscite, they placed Maximilian Habsburg on the throne.
The emperor did not repeal the “reform laws,” which alienated the conservatives, and at the same time, despite all attempts, he was unable to reach a compromise with the liberal opposition led by Juarez. In 1866, Napoleon III withdrew troops from Mexico, having more ambitious plans in Europe and also fearing US intervention and the growth of Mexican resistance. The inevitable outcome was not long in coming: in 1867 Maximilian was defeated, captured, convicted and executed.
Dictatorship of Porfirio Diaz. After Juarez's death in 1872, Sebastian Lerdo de Tejada became president. In 1876, General Porfirio Diaz (1830–1915) rebelled, defeated government troops, entered Mexico City and took power into his own hands. In 1877, by decision of Congress, he became president of Mexico. In 1881 he ceded the presidency for one term, but in 1884 he returned to power, which he held for 27 years until his overthrow in 1911.
Diaz began by consolidating his power. To do this, he entered into an agreement with the largest factions of liberals and conservatives, weakened the effect of anti-clerical reforms, thereby attracting the clergy to his side, and subjugated the army elite and local caudillos. Diaz’s favorite slogan “less politics, more management” reduced the country’s public life to bare administration, i.e. implied an intolerant attitude towards any manifestation of dissent and the absolute power of the dictator, who presented himself as the guarantor of stability, justice and prosperity.
Diaz attached particular importance to economics. Under the slogan “order and progress,” he achieved sustainable economic development of society and began to enjoy the support of a growing bureaucracy, large landowners and foreign capital. Profitable concessions encouraged foreign companies to invest in the development of Mexican natural resources. Railways and telegraph lines were built, new banks and enterprises were created. Having become a solvent state, Mexico easily received foreign loans.
This policy was carried out under the influence of a special group in the administrative apparatus of the regime - the so-called. Sentificos ("scholars") who believed that Mexico should be ruled by a Creole elite, with mestizos and Indians relegated to a subordinate role. One of the leaders of the group, José Limantour, served as Minister of Finance and did a lot for the development of the Mexican economy.
Mexican Revolution. Despite the successes in economic development, the Diaz dictatorship began to cause growing discontent among the broadest sections of the population. The peasantry and representatives of the indigenous population, suffering from the arbitrariness of landowners, theft of communal lands and heavy duties, rebelled under the slogan “Land and Freedom!” The intelligentsia and liberal circles were burdened by the despotic regime of the ruling groups and the power of the church, and sought civil rights and freedoms. Mexico's dependence on foreign capital gave rise to demands for the country's economic and foreign policy independence.
The organized struggle against the Diaz dictatorship began at the turn of 19 and 20. In 1901, opposition circles created the Mexican Liberal Party (MLP), which declared its intention to achieve the restoration of constitutional freedoms. Enrique Flores Magon quickly acquired a leading role in the movement, gradually evolving towards anarchist views. Forced to emigrate abroad, he organized the “Organizational Junta of the MLP” in the United States, which from 1906 led a series of uprisings and strikes in Mexico, seeking to overthrow the dictator and implement social reforms.
Madero's revolt. Diaz put a match to the keg of gunpowder, giving an interview to American journalist James Krillman, in which he stated that Mexico was ripe for democracy, that he was not going to stand as a candidate in the 1910 elections and was ready to allow opposition parties to participate in the elections. This interview stimulated the political activity of the opposition led by Francisco Madero, the scion of a wealthy landowner.
Madero formed an opposition party, the anti-reelectionists (opponents of re-election). Madero used the experience of his predecessors and formed an opposition party of anti-re-expressionists. In response to Creelman's interview, he published a book called Presidential election 1910, in which he sharply attacked the militaristic dictatorial regime. Madero's vigorous activity brought him fame as the “apostle of Mexican democracy.”
However, Diaz broke his promises, re-nominated himself and was re-elected president. At the same time, he unleashed repression against the opposition and imprisoned Madero. Madero managed to escape to the United States, where he prepared a revolutionary rebellion that began on November 20, 1910. The uprising quickly grew into a revolution, and six months later, on May 21, 1911, the government signed the Treaty of Ciudad Juarez on the resignation of Diaz and the creation of a provisional government. On the night of May 24-25, Diaz secretly left the capital and departed for Europe.
In November 1911 Madero was elected president. His short 15-month presidency constituted what could be said to be the idealistic phase of the revolution. Well-meaning but politically inexperienced Madero attempted to give Mexico democracy. On this path he faced many obstacles - such as opposition from Congress; attacks by the press for abusing freedom of speech; the government's increasing dependence on the army; the intrigues of US Ambassador Henry Wilson, who supported Madero’s opponents; military mutinies. Madero was attacked by both conservatives, who feared the spread of the revolution, and radical liberals, dissatisfied with the slow progress of reforms. Enormous forces and resources were consumed by the fight against rebellions - for example, with the uprising of Pascual Orozco, the former commander-in-chief of the revolutionary army, or with the peasant guerrilla movement in the south of the country under the leadership of Emiliano Zapata (1883-1919). The final blow was the mutiny of the capital's garrison, which began on February 9, 1913. Street fighting, which lasted for ten days (the so-called “tragic decade”), caused great damage to the city and resulted in numerous casualties among the civilian population. The commander of the government forces, Victoriano Huerta (1845–1916), a secret participant in the conspiracy, arrested Madero and his vice-president José Pino Suarez on February 18. On February 22, they were killed by guards on their way to prison.
Years of war. The assassination of Madero and the establishment of the military dictatorship of V. Huerta united various factions of revolutionaries. The governor of the state of Cahuila, Venustiano Carranza (1859–1920), proclaimed the “Plan of Guadalupe” on March 26, 1913, in which he called for the restoration of a constitutional government. The fight against Huerta was led by General Alvaro Obregon (1880–1928) and peasant leaders E. Zapata and Francisco (Pancho) Villa (1878–1923). With their combined forces, they overthrew the Huerta regime in July 1914. To a certain extent, this was facilitated by the fact that US President Woodrow Wilson refused to recognize the Huerta government.
However, immediately after the victory, the revolutionaries began a struggle for power. In October 1914, in order to reconcile the warring parties, a revolutionary convention was convened in Aguascalientes with the participation of representatives of Villa and Zapata. Convinced that Carranza cared only about maintaining power, the convention appointed a number of executors to carry out social and economic reforms. The majority of the assembly demanded that Carranza relinquish his title of "leader of the revolution", but he refused to do so and moved his headquarters to Veracruz. By issuing a series of revolutionary decrees, Carranza won over workers and small landowners. Government troops under the command of Obregon in the spring of 1915 defeated Villa's Northern Division in the battles of Zelaya and Leon and took control of the central part of the country. Zapata continued to resist in the south until he was killed in 1919. Villa fought a guerrilla war in the north until the overthrow of Carranza in 1920.
The Mexican Revolution and the United States. From the very beginning, the Mexican Revolution caused concern among the US ruling circles, which had to decide on neutrality, recognition of new governments, the sale of weapons and the protection of the property of US citizens from possible damage. Disillusioned with the Díaz regime, the US maintained a policy of non-intervention during the Madero rebellion and recognized him as president. However, the US ambassador to Mexico, Henry Lane Wilson, constantly intrigued against the new government, supported the rebels, and is morally responsible for failing to prevent Madero's murders.
President Wilson refused to recognize Huerta due to the fact that he came to power illegally by killing a rival. Wilson believed that non-recognition of the dictator would contribute to his overthrow and the implementation of necessary reforms. A direct result of this bystander policy was US military intervention to prevent the delivery of weapons to the Huerta regime. When a German ship loaded with weapons anchored in Veracruz, Wilson ordered the U.S. Navy to capture the city. These actions, which outraged the Mexicans, threatened to lead to war. Only diplomatic mediation by Argentina, Brazil and Chile helped prevent a large-scale conflict.
After the fall of Huerta's dictatorship, Wilson tried to reconcile the warring factions of the revolutionaries. These attempts failed, and after the defeat of Villa's Northern Division, the United States recognized the Carranza government. In March 1916, Villa's detachment crossed the US border and raided the border town of Columbus, New Mexico. In response, Wilson sent a punitive expedition against the Villistas under the command of General Pershing. However, the North Americans met fierce resistance from the Mexicans and, having suffered a series of defeats, in January 1917 began evacuating troops from Mexican territory.
The adoption of the Constitution of 1917 strained relations between the countries, since a number of its articles infringed on the interests of North American companies in Mexico.
Constitution of 1917. The new Mexican constitution was the main outcome of the revolution. Carranza, who remained victorious, gave the force of law to the reforms promised in his revolutionary decrees. The text of the document basically repeated the provisions of the constitution of 1857, but added three fundamentally important articles to them. Article three provided for the introduction of universal free primary education; Article 27 declared all lands, waters and mineral resources on Mexican territory to be national property, and also declared the need for the division of large latifundia and established the principles and procedure for carrying out agrarian reform; Article 123 was an extensive labor code.
Reconstruction period. Carranza had the foresight to introduce a provision on agrarian reform into the constitution, although he himself held more conservative views on this issue. In foreign policy, Carranza was guided by some of the principles put forward earlier, and maintained Mexico's neutrality in the First World War. On the eve of the 1920 elections, an uprising began in the state of Sonora under the leadership of generals Obregon, Adolfo de la Huerta and Plutarco Elias Calles (1877–1945). The rebels moved troops to the capital; Carranza tried to escape, but was captured and shot. For the next 14 years, Mexico was ruled by Obregón and Calles: they established peace in the country and began to implement some reforms.
Obregón was the first president to begin to implement the ideals of the revolution. He distributed 1.1 million hectares of land among peasants and supported the labor movement. The Minister of Education, José Vasconcelos, launched a broad educational program in the countryside and contributed to the cultural flowering of Mexico in the 1920s, called the “Mexican Renaissance.”
Calles became president in 1924 and effectively remained in power for ten years. He continued the policy of patronage of the labor movement and the distribution of lands of large latifundia. At the same time, many small family farms were created, which were trained in modern agricultural technologies. Calles accelerated the implementation of the program for the construction of rural schools, launched an irrigation campaign, stimulated the construction of roads, the development of industry and finance.
The internal political situation in Mexico during these years was characterized by instability, which was aggravated by contradictions with the United States. Any change of government was accompanied by riots - in 1923–1924, 1927 and 1929. The implementation of the anti-clerical program stated in the constitution caused a sharp deterioration in relations between the state and the church. The refusal of the clergy to comply with the provisions of the constitution led to the closure of church schools, to which the church responded by temporarily stopping religious worship in churches from August 1, 1926. For three years, from 1926 to 1929, the so-called fire burned in Mexico. Cristeros uprising. Church supporters, mostly peasants, killed government emissaries and burned secular schools. The uprising was suppressed by government troops.
There were constant diplomatic conflicts with the United States related to American oil companies in Mexico. The Bucarelli Agreement, developed in 1923 by a joint diplomatic commission, resolved a number of the most pressing problems and led to recognition of the Obregón government by the United States.
In violation of previously reached agreements, the Calles government in 1925 began to prepare a law to implement Article 27 of the 1917 Constitution, concerning the property and land holdings of American companies. This again strained relations between Mexico and the United States. Things were heading towards a severance of diplomatic relations, if not to armed intervention, which the Mexicans considered inevitable. The situation eased in 1927, when the skilled diplomat Dwight Morrow became US ambassador to Mexico. Following the course of the good neighbor policy proclaimed by Roosevelt, he was able to find a compromise in solving the most pressing problems.
Obregón's assassination in July 1928 during the election campaign created a political vacuum that only Calles could fill, and from 1928 to 1934 he effectively ruled the country behind three successive presidents. In general, these were years of conservatism, corruption, economic stagnation and disappointment. Despite everything, 1929 became a record year for the amount of land distributed among peasants; in the same year, the state reached an agreement with the church, and the National Revolutionary Party was created, renamed in 1946 to the Institutional Revolutionary Party, and in 1931 the government adopted a new labor code.
Continuation of the revolution. In 1934, during the election of a new president for a six-year term, Calles supported the candidacy of Lazaro Cardenas (1895–1970). During the election campaign, Cardenas reiterated his commitment to the ideals of the revolution, traveled all over the country and directly communicated with ordinary people. The new president gradually took full power into his own hands and forced Calles to leave Mexico.
Cárdenas's progressive government launched a broad reform campaign. The army and the ruling party were reorganized. Cardenas dramatically accelerated agrarian reform and distributed more land to peasants than previous presidents combined. By 1940, ejidos (collective peasant farms) occupied more than half of all arable land in Mexico. The trade union movement was revived; A broad educational program was carried out, which included intensive work among the Indian population. The reform movement reached its peak in 1938, when Cardenas nationalized the property of North American and British oil companies.
1990s and early 2000s. By 1940, Cardenas came to the conclusion that the country needed a respite in order to consolidate the transformation. Therefore, in the presidential elections, he supported the candidacy of General Manuel Avilo Camacho (1897–1955), a man of moderate conservative views. The new president favored the church, patronized private land ownership and put Fidel Velázquez at the head of the trade union movement, who largely shared his views. In 1942, he signed a number of agreements with the United States and settled the conflict that arose in 1938 in connection with the nationalization of the oil industry. In response, the United States pledged to provide financial assistance in stabilizing the Mexican peso, building roads and industrializing the country.
The Second World War had a significant impact on the development of the country. Mexico became an ally of the anti-Hitler coalition and declared war on the Axis countries. She participated in the work of the guard service, supplied the Allies with raw materials and labor, and three hundred Mexican pilots served at air bases in the Philippine Islands and later in Taiwan. Financial and technological assistance from the United States allowed Mexico to modernize its railroads and industry. Mexico was forced to develop its own production partly because it lost European imports due to the war. The war raised world prices, created favorable conditions for trade, and allowed Mexico to accumulate foreign exchange reserves, which were used for the needs of industrialization. Finally, the war brought Mexico onto the stage of world politics, helped it get rid of its provincialism complex, and increased the country's international prestige.
From 1946 to 1952, Mexico was ruled by Miguel Aleman, the first civilian president since Madero. Under him, the political influence of big capital increased, agreements were signed with the church and with foreign investors, and friendly relations with the United States were consolidated. The Alemán government focused its main efforts on implementing programs of industrialization, regional industrial development, irrigation, and the introduction of modern agricultural technologies. It was a period of economic growth, grandiose public projects, and large-scale construction.
Aleman's excessive projects and promises and the ensuing economic crisis created considerable difficulties for President Adolfo Ruiz Cortines (1952–1958). However, the president managed to restore the pace of development of the Mexican economy and curb corruption. He focused on modernizing ports and maritime transport. Under him, the distribution of land to peasants was resumed, and social assistance to workers was expanded.
Cortines' policy was continued by Adolfo López Mateos (1958–1964). He widely promoted the concept of Mexican identity at home and abroad, curbed extremism, enacted tax reform, nationalized the energy and film industries, accelerated land reform and launched an 11-year program to develop rural education.
Gustavo Díaz Ordaz, president from 1964–1970, followed a moderate course, maneuvering between conservative and reformist tendencies both in the country and in the ruling party. During his reign, production developed at an extremely rapid pace with an annual increase in the gross national product of 6.5%. Per capita income has increased sharply. However, the inadequate distribution of material wealth did not make it possible to effectively solve problems in the field of education and social security of a rapidly growing population. In 1967, the largest one-time distribution of land in the history of Mexico was carried out - 1 million hectares. At the same time, behind the façade of economic success, social tension grew, which resulted in student unrest in the summer and autumn of 1968. The shooting of a peaceful student demonstration on the Square of Three Cultures on October 2, 1968, which resulted in hundreds of victims, formed a glaring contrast with the festivities marking the opening of the Olympic Games that took place in the same month. In 1969, the first metro lines were opened in Mexico City. In August 1970, Díaz Ordaz settled all border disputes between the two countries with US President Richard Nixon.
Luis Echeverría Alvarez was elected president in 1970. In 1973, his government passed a law strictly controlling foreign investment in Mexico. Echeverría strengthened Mexico's ties with other Latin American countries, primarily Cuba, Peru and Chile. In 1972, Mexico established diplomatic relations with China.
The election of José López Portillo (1976–1982) to the presidency coincided with the discovery of large oil fields in the states of Chiapas and Tabasco and offshore the Gulf of Campeche. Between 1976 and 1982 Mexico tripled its oil production and became one of the leading oil-producing countries. Rising oil prices brought enormous profits to the country, to which were added large loans, mainly from US banks, guaranteed by revenues from oil sales.
The Mexican oil boom ended in 1981 with falling oil prices and declining oil sales. By the summer of 1982, the country could no longer make the necessary payments on foreign loans. At the same time, wealthy Mexicans were exporting huge amounts of currency outside the country, draining foreign exchange reserves needed for imports. In this situation, Lopez Portillo took a number of emergency measures. He nationalized the banks and imposed strict controls on their external operations, obtained long-term loans from the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the lending banks, carried out a 75 percent devaluation of the Mexican peso, and sharply reduced government spending and imports. As a result, Mexico entered a period of economic depression.
In December 1982, López Portillo was replaced as president by PRI candidate Miguel de la Madrid Hurtado. He launched a crackdown on corruption and brought criminal charges against two of the most corrupt senior officials of the previous administration. At the same time, he did not touch either Lopez Portillo himself, or the bureaucratic apparatus of the IPR and the trade union leaders associated with him. In accordance with IMF recommendations, de la Madrid and his budget planning minister, Carlos Salinas de Gortari, carried out the tight fiscal policies initiated by the previous president.
In the presidential elections of 1988, intense rivalry developed between Carlos Salinas de Gortari and Cuauhtemoc Cardenas, who a year earlier had left the PRI, creating the National Democratic Front. Despite the disputed election results, Salinas was proclaimed president. In order to mitigate the consequences of the financial crisis, he developed a program to protect the poor, called the National Solidarity Program. In particular, it provided for cooperation between the central government and representatives of local authorities, who themselves determined priorities in the economic development of their territories. Salinas generously subsidized this program ($1.3 billion by 1993).
Salinas pursued a policy of rapprochement with the Roman Catholic Church, which had long been considered an enemy of the revolution. He invited church leaders to his presidential inauguration, restored relations with the Vatican, softened the anticlerical provisions of the constitution, and invited Pope John Paul II to participate in the opening of a charitable project in the slums of Mexico City. All these symbolic gestures were designed to win over Mexican Catholics, who made up the vast majority of the country's population.
In November 1993, Mexico and the United States signed a free trade agreement (NAFTA). The agreement was expected to revitalize the Mexican economy and create more jobs for Mexicans. At the end of the year, Salinas announced PRI candidate Luis Donaldo Colosio as his presidential successor. Mexico has been invited to join member countries of the Asia-Pacific Economic Forum (APEC), an informal organization comprising the United States, Canada, Australia, New Zealand and 11 Asian countries that holds annual advisory councils on trade issues.
In 1992, the ruling PRI managed, in a bitter struggle with the conservative National Action Party and the left PDR, created by C. Cardenas, to win the majority of gubernatorial posts. The opposition managed to defeat only Chihuahua and Guanajuato. She accused the ruling party of rigging the vote. Under public pressure, Congress adopted constitutional amendments in August 1993 that democratized the electoral system.
After 14 months of negotiations, the US and Mexican governments signed a free trade agreement. On January 1, 1994, the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) came into force. In accordance with it, Mexico pledged to liberalize its market for North American financial transactions, open access to firms from the United States and Canada to its telecommunications, remove restrictions on the activities of joint ventures, etc. The greatest indignation of the peasants was caused by the fact that the Mexican authorities, contrary to the previous provisions of the constitution, recognized the possibility of alienation, purchase and division of communal lands. On January 1, 1994, the military-political organization Zapatista Army of National Liberation (EZLN), based on the Indian population of the state of Chiapas, raised an uprising in the state, demanding recognition of land rights, opportunities for the development of Indian culture, social and economic progress of the region, as well as the implementation of broad democratization. EZLN forces occupied a number of settlements, but were pushed back by government forces. At least 145 people died. Human rights activists blamed the army for numerous executions and arrests. Subsequently, active hostilities in the state ceased and developed into a kind of “low-intensity war.” The opposition public demanded a political settlement of the conflict, but negotiations on this topic, despite some progress, generally proved to be ineffective.
On the eve of the 1994 general elections, a constitutional amendment was adopted that expanded the possibilities of public control over the course of elections. The opposition was allowed access to the media. More equal opportunities for campaign financing were ensured. Disagreements within Mexico's ruling circles grew. In March 1994, the PRI presidential candidate Luis Donaldo Colosio was assassinated (later, in August of the same year, the PRI general secretary was assassinated). President Salinas appointed economist Ernesto Zedillo Ponce de Leon as the new candidate. For the first time, televised debates were held between the main contenders for the presidency. In July 1994, Zedillo was elected head of state, receiving 50.2% of the vote; PNM candidate Diego Fernandez de Cevallos received almost 27% of the votes, C. Cardenas from the PDR received over 17%. The PRI managed to maintain a significant majority in both houses of Congress.
Having assumed the presidency, Zedillo was faced with an acute monetary and financial crisis, a fall in the value of the Mexican peso and capital flight from the country. At the beginning of 1995, an economic recession followed; more than 250 thousand people lost their jobs (in total, 2.4 million jobs were lost in the first half of 1995). The government devalued the national currency, introduced price controls, froze wages and announced a new privatization program. The United States provided Mexico with assistance in the amount of $18 billion and loan guarantees worth $20 billion, the IMF and the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development - by $28 billion. Then the authorities increased the value added tax, prices for fuel and electricity, and reduced government expenses and limited wage growth. As a result, the Zedillo government managed to reduce inflation, overcome the trade deficit, and in 1996, achieve growth in GNP and begin to repay loan debts. It has promised to allocate significant funds to fight poverty. In 1999, the IMF provided Mexico with a 17-month loan of more than $4 billion, which was the precondition for further international loans of almost $20 billion.
Regarding the crisis in Chiapas, Zedillo promised to guarantee the rights of the Indians and help develop the region, but refused to implement reforms on a national scale, especially land reforms.
The ruling PRI continued to be rocked by political scandals. Relatives of former President Salinas were accused of involvement in the murder of the PRI general secretary, corruption, embezzlement and abuses during privatization and received multi-year prison sentences. A number of high-ranking police officers and army officers were put on trial for connections with the drug mafia.
In the parliamentary and local elections in July 1997, the PRI lost its majority in the Chamber of Deputies for the first time. The opposition PDR and MHP won several more seats than the ruling party. The first direct elections for the mayor of the capital were won by the leader of the PRD, C. Cardenas, who collected more than 47% of the votes, and the PND won the gubernatorial elections in the states of Nuevo Leon and Queretaro. Thus, the PRI retained power in 25 states, and the PAP in 6. The PRI also lost votes in the municipal elections.
In subsequent years, the PRI's power system continued to erode, and the party lost several more gubernatorial posts. In 1999, a coalition of the PDR and the leftist Labor Party won the gubernatorial elections in Baja California Sur; The opposition also won in Nayarit. As a result, the PRI retained power in only 21 states. The fall in the government's popularity was also contributed to by the violent suppression of a university strike in 2000. To attract the sympathy of voters, the party decided to abolish the practice of appointing a presidential candidate by presidential decree and introduce a system of internal party elections.
The general elections in 2000 radically changed the political situation in the country. The PRI lost power for the first time in Mexico. Its presidential candidate Francisco Labastida received only 36.1% of the votes, losing to the MHP-Greens bloc candidate Vicente Fox, who received 42.5% of the votes. C. Cárdenas, nominated by the bloc of PDR, PT and a number of small left parties, won 16.6%, Gilberto Rincón (Social Democracy Party) - 1.6%, Manuel Camacho (Democratic Center Party) - 0.6% and Porfirio Muñoz from the Authentic Party of the Mexican Revolution - 0.4%. However, the coalition that came to power failed to obtain an absolute majority of seats in Congress. The PRI again lost the election for mayor of the capital and lost the post of governor of Chiapas.
Upon assuming the presidency, Vicente Fox promised to implement fundamental changes. But by 2003, he had failed to achieve the implementation of his program and promises: to privatize the energy sector, agree to liberalize the migration of Mexicans to the United States, create 1 million new jobs and resolve the conflict in Chiapas. The devastation of the peasantry, suffering from the effects of NAFTA, continued. As a result, during the 2003 parliamentary elections, the ruling PAP lost a quarter of the votes and about 70 seats in the Chamber of Deputies, and the PRI again came out on top.
LITERATURE
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Encyclopedia Around the World. 2008 .

MEXICO

UNITED MEXICAN STATES
Country in North America. It borders on the north and east with the United States of America, and on the south with Belize and Guatemala. In the east it is washed by the Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean Sea, in the west - by the Pacific Ocean. Mexico also owns several offshore islands. The area of ​​the country is 1958201 km2. Most of the territory is occupied by a huge plateau, surrounded by mountain ranges, which in the west and east abruptly turn into narrow coastal plains. The western Sierra Madre Occidental and eastern Sierra Madre Oriental mountain ranges meet in the southeastern region of La Junta and form the Sierra Madre del Sol, a labyrinth of volcanoes that include Mexico's highest peaks, rising to 5,700 m. Central The plateau is an extension of the valleys of the southwestern United States. The height of the highlands in the Doga ranges from 1830 to 2440 m above sea level, and in the north from 1070 to 1220 m above sea level. On the plateau there are two valleys: Bolson de Mapimi in the north and Anahuac in the center. The coastal plains are mostly sandy, with only occasional mountains on the Pacific coast. Baja California is a narrow peninsula about 1,220 km long on the west coast - mountainous. The Yucatan Peninsula in the southeast of the country is flat, with an average height above sea level of about 30 m. Mexico has few large rivers and most of them are non-navigable. The longest river is the Rio Grande, called Rio Bravo Del Norte in Mexico and flows along the US-Mexico border. Other important rivers of the country are the Balsas Panuco, Grijalva, Usumaquinta in the south and the Conchos in the north. The largest lake in Mexico is Lake Chapala in the west of the country. There are several small lakes in the Anahuac Valley.
The country's population (estimated for 1998) is about 98,552,700 people, with an average population density of about 50 people per km2. Ethnic groups: mestizos - 60%, Indians - 30%, Europeans - 9%. Language: Spanish (state), Aztec (Nahuatl), Mayan, Otomi, about 10 more local languages. Religion: Catholics - 89%, Protestants. The capital is Mexico City.
Largest cities: Mexico City (9,800,000 people), Guadalajara (1,629,000 people), Monterrey (1,064,000 people), Puebla (1,055,000 people), Sue Dad Juarez (798,500 people), Leon (758,000 people), Tijuana (699,000 people). The government system is a federal republic. The head of state is President Ernesto Zedillo Ponce de Leon (in office since December 1, 1994). The currency is the Mexican New Peso. Average life expectancy (as of 1998): 68 years for men, 74 years for women. The birth rate (per 1000 people) is 25.5. The mortality rate (per 1000 people) is 4.9.
On the territory of modern Mexico were some of the most advanced civilizations of the Western Hemisphere. The first civilization was the Olmec state, which existed from 1500 to 600 BC. Mayan culture reached its peak around the 6th century AD. Another civilization was the state of the warlike Toltecs, which arose in the 10th century in the center of modern Mexico. In the 11th century, the Toltecs were supplanted by the Chichimeca tribe, who in turn were supplanted by the Nahuatlan tribes who came from the north, the most powerful among whom was the Aztec or Mexican tribe. The Aztec Empire arose in the second quarter of the 14th century and by the 15th century was the most powerful state entity in central and southern Mexico. The first European to come to Mexico was the Spanish navigator Francisco Fernandez de Cordoba, who in 1517 discovered ancient Mayan settlements in Yucatan. A year later, Juan de Grijava, who led an expedition on the eastern coast of Mexico, brought messages about the existence of a rich Aztec empire. In 1519, a large armed detachment under the command of Hernando Cortez began military operations against the Aztecs. In 1535, the Aztec capital fell and Mexico became a Spanish colony. At the beginning of the 19th century, when Napoleon's troops occupied Spain, a war of liberation began in Mexico, ending in July 1821 with the formation of the independent Mexican Empire. In 1823 the country was declared a republic. In 1836, Mexico lost the territories of California and Texas, which declared themselves independent republics, and, after the war with the United States (1846-1848), the lands north of the Rio Grande. In 1917, after the bloody events of the Mexican Revolution, a new constitution was adopted, leading to significant political reforms. Since 1929, the Constitutional Revolutionary Party has been in power in the country; in January 1994, Mexico, together with the United States and Canada, became a member of the largest free trade zone NAFTA, on the same day active hostilities began in the state of Chiapas, where the so-called Zapatista National Liberation Army captured several cities, demanding fundamental political reforms in the country. Mexico is a member of the UN, IMF, GATT, NAFTA, and the Organization of American States.
The climate in Mexico depends on the altitude above sea level. The so-called "Tierra Caliente" - hot territory - consists of coastal plains, rising from sea level to 900 m. The climate there is very humid and the average temperature ranges from 16 ° C to 49 ° C. "Tierra Templada" - a temperate region - is located at an altitude from 900 to 1800 m above sea level. The average temperature ranges from 17° C to 21° C. "Tierra Fria" - a cold region - lies at an altitude of 1800 to 2700 m above sea level and the average temperature there is from 15° C to 17° C. In Mexico City, the average temperature in January - from 6°C to 19°C, the average July temperature is from 12°C to 23°C. In Monterrey - from 9°C to 20°C in January and from 22°C to 29°C in July. The rainy season lasts from May to October. The average annual precipitation in Mexico is about 750 mm, although in the semi-desert north of the country it is about 250 mm, and in some southern areas it is up to 1500 mm. Due to the wide variety of temperatures, the fauna of Mexico is also very diverse. In the north, cacti, yucca, agave and mesquite grow in abundance. In hot regions, dense tropical forests grow with a large number of tropical plant species, including several types of palms, rubber trees, and olive trees. Oak, pine and spruce grow on the mountain slopes. The fauna of Mexico, like the vegetation, depends on the altitude above sea level. Wolves and coyotes live in the north. In the forests on the mountain slopes there are ocelots, jaguars, peccaries, bears and pumas. There are seals on the coast. Among the reptiles of Mexico, turtles, iguanas, rattlesnakes and lizards are especially common. A large number of different species of birds.
Among the country's many museums, standouts include the National History Museum, with exhibits covering the period after the Spanish conquest, and the National Anthropological Museum, with a collection of objects from the Mayan and Aztec civilizations, both museums in Mexico City. In addition, Mexico City is home to the Museum of Contemporary Art. Museum of Natural History. In Merida (in Yucatan) there is a rich collection of exhibits from the Mayan Empire. In Villa Hermosa: Museo Tobasco with a collection of art from pre-Columbian civilizations; La Venta Museum, located in the open air, the complex of which includes buildings of the archaeological site of La Venta. In Guadalajara: Museum with a collection of works by the Mexican artist José Clemente Orozco. Historical and archaeological sites in Mexico City include: National Cathedral (1573-1675); municipal palace (1720); National Palace (1792), in which the country's president and parliament work; "Three Cultures Square, on which buildings of Aztec, Spanish colonial and modern architecture are located; zoo; Chapul-Terek Castle (former residence of the president); Basilica of St. Virgin of Guadalupe - the most important Catholic shrine of the country. In Merida: the ruins of an ancient Mayan city; a 16th-century cathedral in the style of colonial architecture. In Acapulco, called the Mexican Riviera: luxury hotels and casinos, beautiful beaches (from May to November it is rainy and hot, from December to July it is warm and dryly).In Guadalajara: a cathedral with a beautiful fresco by Esteban Murillo "Assumption of the Virgin Mary"; governor's palace. In Monterrey: the main square of the city Plaza Zaragoza; a cathedral in the style of colonial architecture (1600), episcopal palace (1782). Dictionary of synonyms

The content of the article

MEXICO, United Mexican States, a state occupying the northern, widest part of the isthmus that extends south of the US border and connects North America with South America. In the west, the shores of Mexico are washed by the waters of the Pacific Ocean and the Gulf of California, in the east - by the Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean Sea; to the south it borders Guatemala and Belize. Mexico was the cradle of ancient civilizations in the New World. Now it is home to a fifth of the total population of Latin America.

Colonial period.

In 1528, the Spanish crown limited the power of Cortes by sending an audience to Mexico - an administrative-judicial panel reporting directly to the king. In 1535, Mexico became part of the newly created Viceroyalty of New Spain. Antonio de Mendoza became the first viceroy, the personal representative of the Spanish monarch in New Spain; in 1564 he was replaced in office by Luis de Velasco. For three centuries, from 1521 to 1821, Mexico remained a colonial possession of Spain. Despite the active interaction of local and European traditions, culturally Mexican society presented a rather motley picture. The colonial economy was based on the exploitation of Indians, who were forced to work on their lands and mines. The Spaniards introduced new agricultural technologies and new crops into traditional Indian agriculture, including citrus fruits, wheat, sugar cane and olives, taught the Indians animal husbandry, began the systematic development of the earth's interior and created new mining centers - Guanajuato, Zacatecas, Pachuca, Taxco, etc.

The Roman Catholic Church became the most important instrument of political and cultural influence on the Indians. Its pioneering missionaries actually expanded the sphere of Spanish influence.

During the 18th century. The Bourbons, who ruled Spain, under the influence of the ideas of the Enlightenment, carried out a number of reforms in the colonies aimed at centralizing power and liberalizing the economy. Mexico produced outstanding administrators, including the outstanding viceroys Antonio Maria Bucareli (1771–1779) and Count Revillagigedo (1789–1794).

War for independence.

The anti-colonial war in Mexico, which unfolded after the occupation of Spain by Napoleon's troops, developed under the influence of the Great French Revolution and the American War of Independence. At the same time, the liberation movement did not originate among the metropolitan Creoles (whites of American origin), but in the very heart of the mining region and in the initial stages had the character of almost a race war. The uprising, which began in the village of Dolores on September 16, 1810, was led by the priest Miguel Hidalgo (1753–1811). Obeying his call “Independence and death to the Spaniards!”, which went down in history as the “Cry of Dolores,” the rebels, mostly Indians and mestizos, moved towards the capital with the inspiration of the crusaders. The delusional and reckless Padre Hidalgo turned out to be a bad military leader, and ten months later he was captured by the Spaniards, defrocked and shot. September 16 is celebrated in Mexico as Independence Day, and Hidalgo is revered as a national hero.

The banner of the liberation struggle was taken up by another parish priest, a republican by conviction, Jose Maria Morelos (1765–1815), who showed extraordinary abilities as a military leader and organizer. The Chilpancing Congress (November 1813), convened on his initiative, adopted a declaration of Mexican independence. However, two years later Morelos suffered the same fate as his predecessor Hidalgo. Over the next five years, the independence movement in Mexico took on the character of guerrilla warfare under the leadership of local leaders such as Vicente Guerrero in Oaxaca or Guadalupe Victoria in the states of Puebla and Veracruz.

The success of the Spanish Liberal Revolution of 1820 convinced conservative Mexican Creoles that they should no longer rely on the mother country. The Creole elite of Mexican society joined the independence movement, which ensured its victory. Creole Colonel Agustin de Iturbide (1783–1824), who had once fought against Hidalgo, changed his political course, united his army with the forces of Guerrero and together with him on February 24, 1821 in the city of Iguala (modern Iguala de la Independencia) put forward a program called the Iguala Plan. This plan declared “three guarantees”: Mexican independence and the establishment of a constitutional monarchy, the preservation of the privileges of the Catholic Church and equal rights for Creoles and Spaniards. Without encountering serious resistance, Iturbide's army occupied Mexico City on September 27, and the next day the country's independence was proclaimed as part of the Iguala Plan.

Independent Mexico

in the first half of the 19th century.

Independence in itself did not ensure the consolidation of the nation and the formation of new political institutions. The caste-hierarchical structure of society remained unchanged, except for the fact that the Creoles replaced the Spaniards at the top of the social pyramid. The development of new social relations was hampered by the church with its privileges, the army command and large latifundists, who continued to expand their estates at the expense of Indian lands. The economy remained colonial in nature: it was entirely focused on food production and the extraction of precious metals. Therefore, many events in Mexican history can be seen as attempts to overcome the oppression of the colonial legacy, consolidate the nation and gain full independence.

Mexico emerged from the war of liberation greatly weakened - with an empty treasury, a destroyed economy, interrupted trade ties with Spain, and an enormously bloated bureaucracy and army. Internal political instability hampered the speedy resolution of these problems.

After the declaration of independence of Mexico, a provisional government was formed, but in May 1822 Iturbide carried out a coup d'état and crowned himself emperor under the name Augustine I. In early December 1822, the commander of the Veracruz garrison, Antonio Lopez de Santa Ana (1794–1876), rebelled and proclaimed a republic. He soon joined forces with the rebels of Guerrera and Victoria and in March 1823 forced Iturbide to abdicate and emigrate. The Founding Congress, convened in November of that year, consisted of the warring camps of liberals and conservatives. As a result, a compromise constitution was adopted: at the insistence of the liberals, Mexico was declared a federal republic like the United States, while the conservatives managed to establish the status of the Catholic religion as the official and only permitted in the country and preserve various kinds of privileges of the clergy and the military, including their immunity from civil courts.

The first legally elected president of Mexico was M. Guadalupe Victoria (1824–1828). In 1827, the conservatives rebelled, but were defeated. In 1829, the candidate from the liberal party, Vicente Guerrero, became president, abolishing slavery and repelling Spain's last attempt to restore its power in the former colony. Guerrero lasted in power for less than a year and was overthrown by conservatives in December 1829. Liberals responded to their opponents with another coup d'etat and in 1833 transferred power to Santa Ana.

This typical Latin American caudillo (leader, dictator) was re-elected as president five times and ruled the country himself or through figureheads for 22 years. He provided the country with internal political stability and economic growth, accompanied by an expansion of the middle class. However, Santa Ana's foreign policy led the country to national disaster. In the war with the United States, Mexico lost almost two-thirds of its territory - the current North American states of Arizona, California, Colorado, Nevada, New Mexico, Texas and Utah.

The United States' territorial claims to Mexico emerged at the very beginning of the 19th century; they assumed a threatening character in the late 1820s, when North American settlers began to penetrate into Texas in large numbers. The colonists experienced severe labor shortages on their plantations and sought to legalize the slave trade. To this end, in 1836 the Texans separated from Mexico and proclaimed Texas an independent republic, which was recognized by the United States in 1837. In 1845, the North American Congress adopted a resolution to include Texas in the United States as a slave state, and the next year, in response to protests from Mexico, declared war on it. Santa Ana suffered one defeat after another, until in September 1847 he surrendered the capital and signed an act of surrender.

According to the peace treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo (1848), imposed by the victors, Mexico gave its northern provinces to the United States. This defeat had disastrous consequences for the Mexican economy, not to mention a difficult moral legacy in relations between neighboring countries. But Mexico's territorial losses did not end there. In 1853, Santa Ana, now back in power, sold the Mesilla Valley to the United States under the Gadsden Treaty. In 1854, the governor of the state of Guerrero, Juan Alvarez, and the head of customs, Ignacio Comonfort, rebelled and spoke in the town of Ayutla (modern Ayutla de los Libes) with a call for the overthrow of the dictatorship of Santa Ana. The rebellion quickly grew into a revolution, and in 1855 the dictator was expelled from the country.

The period of reforms.

The liberal reforms carried out by Benito Juárez (1806–1872) represented the second true revolution in Mexican history. In his activities, Juarez relied on the ideologists of the middle class - lawyers, journalists, intellectuals, small entrepreneurs who sought to create a democratic federal republic, end the privileges of the clergy and the military, ensure economic prosperity of the state by redistributing the colossal wealth of the church, and, most importantly, create a class of small owners who will be able to resist the dominance of large landowners and form the backbone of a democratic society. In essence, it was a bourgeois revolution carried out by mestizos.

As Minister of Justice, Juarez carried out reforms in 1855 and 1856. Of these, the most important were the so-called. the Juarez Law, which abolished the judicial privileges of the military and clergy, and the Lerdo Law, which deprived the church of the right to own land and real estate, with the exception of places of worship and the homes of monks. The law leased land estates to civil corporations, which, despite the resistance of Juarez, was used to seize Indian communal lands, especially later, during the era of the dictatorship of P. Diaz.

The culmination of the liberals' reform activities was the adoption of the progressive constitution of 1857, which caused a three-year bloody civil war. In this war, the United States supported Juarez, who became president of Mexico in 1858. England, France and Spain patronized the opposition, who were ultimately defeated. During the war, Juarez accepted the so-called package. “Reform laws” proclaiming the separation of church and state and the nationalization of church property, introducing civil marriage, etc. Subsequently, in the early 1870s, these laws were introduced into the constitution.

The main problem of the Juarez government was foreign debts. After the Mexican Congress announced a two-year suspension of payments on foreign debts in July 1861, representatives of England, France and Spain signed a convention in London on armed intervention in Mexico. At the beginning of 1862, the combined forces of the three states occupied the most important Mexican ports in order to collect customs duties and compensate for the damage suffered. The United States at this time was engulfed in civil war and did not have the opportunity to put the Monroe Doctrine into practice. Spain and England soon withdrew their troops from Mexico, Napoleon III moved an expeditionary force to the capital. The French were defeated at the Battle of Pueblo on May 5, 1862 (this date became a national holiday in Mexico). However, the next year the French strengthened their army, took the capital and, with the support of Mexican conservatives, after a masquerade plebiscite, they placed Maximilian Habsburg on the throne.

The emperor did not repeal the “reform laws,” which alienated the conservatives, and at the same time, despite all attempts, he was unable to reach a compromise with the liberal opposition led by Juarez. In 1866, Napoleon III withdrew troops from Mexico, having more ambitious plans in Europe and also fearing US intervention and the growth of Mexican resistance. The inevitable outcome was not long in coming: in 1867 Maximilian was defeated, captured, convicted and executed.

Dictatorship of Porfirio Diaz.

After Juarez's death in 1872, Sebastian Lerdo de Tejada became president. In 1876, General Porfirio Diaz (1830–1915) rebelled, defeated government troops, entered Mexico City and took power into his own hands. In 1877, by decision of Congress, he became president of Mexico. In 1881 he ceded the presidency for one term, but in 1884 he returned to power, which he held for 27 years until his overthrow in 1911.

Diaz began by consolidating his power. To do this, he entered into an agreement with the largest factions of liberals and conservatives, weakened the effect of anti-clerical reforms, thereby attracting the clergy to his side, and subjugated the army elite and local caudillos. Diaz’s favorite slogan “less politics, more management” reduced the country’s public life to bare administration, i.e. implied an intolerant attitude towards any manifestation of dissent and the absolute power of the dictator, who presented himself as the guarantor of stability, justice and prosperity.

Diaz attached particular importance to economics. Under the slogan “order and progress,” he achieved sustainable economic development of society and began to enjoy the support of a growing bureaucracy, large landowners and foreign capital. Profitable concessions encouraged foreign companies to invest in the development of Mexican natural resources. Railways and telegraph lines were built, new banks and enterprises were created. Having become a solvent state, Mexico easily received foreign loans.

This policy was carried out under the influence of a special group in the administrative apparatus of the regime - the so-called. Sentificos ("scholars") who believed that Mexico should be ruled by a Creole elite, with mestizos and Indians relegated to a subordinate role. One of the leaders of the group, José Limantour, served as Minister of Finance and did a lot for the development of the Mexican economy.

Mexican Revolution.

Despite the successes in economic development, the Diaz dictatorship began to cause growing discontent among the broadest sections of the population. The peasantry and representatives of the indigenous population, suffering from the arbitrariness of landowners, theft of communal lands and heavy duties, rebelled under the slogan “Land and Freedom!” The intelligentsia and liberal circles were burdened by the despotic regime of the ruling groups and the power of the church, and sought civil rights and freedoms. Mexico's dependence on foreign capital gave rise to demands for the country's economic and foreign policy independence.

The organized struggle against the Diaz dictatorship began at the turn of 19 and 20. In 1901, opposition circles created the Mexican Liberal Party (MLP), which declared its intention to achieve the restoration of constitutional freedoms. Enrique Flores Magon quickly acquired a leading role in the movement, gradually evolving towards anarchist views. Forced to emigrate abroad, he organized the “Organizational Junta of the MLP” in the United States, which from 1906 led a series of uprisings and strikes in Mexico, seeking to overthrow the dictator and implement social reforms.

Madero's revolt.

Diaz put a match to the keg of gunpowder, giving an interview to American journalist James Krillman, in which he stated that Mexico was ripe for democracy, that he was not going to stand as a candidate in the 1910 elections and was ready to allow opposition parties to participate in the elections. This interview stimulated the political activity of the opposition led by Francisco Madero, the scion of a wealthy landowner.

Madero formed an opposition party, the anti-reelectionists (opponents of re-election). Madero used the experience of his predecessors and formed an opposition party of anti-re-expressionists. In response to Creelman's interview, he published a book called Presidential election 1910, in which he sharply attacked the militaristic dictatorial regime. Madero's vigorous activity brought him fame as the “apostle of Mexican democracy.”

However, Diaz broke his promises, re-nominated himself and was re-elected president. At the same time, he unleashed repression against the opposition and imprisoned Madero. Madero managed to escape to the United States, where he prepared a revolutionary rebellion that began on November 20, 1910. The uprising quickly grew into a revolution, and six months later, on May 21, 1911, the government signed the Treaty of Ciudad Juarez on the resignation of Diaz and the creation of a provisional government. On the night of May 24-25, Diaz secretly left the capital and departed for Europe.

In November 1911 Madero was elected president. His short 15-month presidency constituted what could be said to be the idealistic phase of the revolution. Well-meaning but politically inexperienced Madero attempted to give Mexico democracy. On this path he faced many obstacles - such as opposition from Congress; attacks by the press for abusing freedom of speech; the government's increasing dependence on the army; the intrigues of US Ambassador Henry Wilson, who supported Madero’s opponents; military mutinies. Madero was attacked by both conservatives, who feared the spread of the revolution, and radical liberals, dissatisfied with the slow progress of reforms. Enormous forces and resources were consumed by the fight against rebellions - for example, with the uprising of Pascual Orozco, the former commander-in-chief of the revolutionary army, or with the peasant guerrilla movement in the south of the country under the leadership of Emiliano Zapata (1883-1919). The final blow was the mutiny of the capital's garrison, which began on February 9, 1913. Street fighting, which lasted for ten days (the so-called “tragic decade”), caused great damage to the city

and caused numerous casualties among civilians. The commander of the government forces, Victoriano Huerta (1845–1916), a secret participant in the conspiracy, arrested Madero and his vice-president José Pino Suarez on February 18. On February 22, they were killed by guards on their way to prison.

Years of war.

The assassination of Madero and the establishment of the military dictatorship of V. Huerta united various factions of revolutionaries. The governor of the state of Cahuila, Venustiano Carranza (1859–1920), proclaimed the “Plan of Guadalupe” on March 26, 1913, in which he called for the restoration of a constitutional government. The fight against Huerta was led by General Alvaro Obregon (1880–1928) and peasant leaders E. Zapata and Francisco (Pancho) Villa (1878–1923). With their combined forces, they overthrew the Huerta regime in July 1914. To a certain extent, this was facilitated by the fact that US President Woodrow Wilson refused to recognize the Huerta government.

However, immediately after the victory, the revolutionaries began a struggle for power. In October 1914, in order to reconcile the warring parties, a revolutionary convention was convened in Aguascalientes with the participation of representatives of Villa and Zapata. Convinced that Carranza cared only about maintaining power, the convention appointed a number of executors to carry out social and economic reforms. The majority of the assembly demanded that Carranza relinquish his title of "leader of the revolution", but he refused to do so and moved his headquarters to Veracruz. Having released a series of revolutions

decrees, Carranza attracted workers and small landowners to his side. Government troops under the command of Obregon in the spring of 1915 defeated Villa's Northern Division in the battles of Zelaya and Leon and took control of the central part of the country. Zapata continued to resist in the south until he was killed in 1919. Villa fought a guerrilla war in the north until the overthrow of Carranza in 1920.

Mexican Revolution and the USA.

From the very beginning, the Mexican Revolution caused concern among the US ruling circles, which had to decide on neutrality, recognition of new governments, the sale of weapons and the protection of the property of US citizens from possible damage. Disillusioned with the Díaz regime, the US maintained a policy of non-intervention during the Madero rebellion and recognized him as president. However, the US ambassador to Mexico, Henry Lane Wilson, constantly intrigued against the new government, supported the rebels, and is morally responsible for failing to prevent Madero's murders.

President Wilson refused to recognize Huerta due to the fact that he came to power illegally by killing a rival. Wilson believed that non-recognition of the dictator would contribute to his overthrow and the implementation of necessary reforms. A direct result of this bystander policy was US military intervention to prevent the delivery of weapons to the Huerta regime. When a German ship loaded with weapons anchored in Veracruz, Wilson ordered the U.S. Navy to capture the city. These actions, which outraged the Mexicans, threatened to lead to war. Only diplomatic mediation by Argentina, Brazil and Chile helped prevent a large-scale conflict.

After the fall of Huerta's dictatorship, Wilson tried to reconcile the warring factions of the revolutionaries. These attempts failed, and after the defeat of Villa's Northern Division, the United States recognized the Carranza government. In March 1916, Villa's detachment crossed the US border and raided the border town of Columbus, New Mexico. In response, Wilson sent a punitive expedition against the Villistas under the command of General Pershing. However, the North Americans met fierce resistance from the Mexicans and, having suffered a series of defeats, in January 1917 began evacuating troops from Mexican territory.

The adoption of the Constitution of 1917 strained relations between the countries, since a number of its articles infringed on the interests of North American companies in Mexico.

Constitution of 1917.

The new Mexican constitution was the main outcome of the revolution. Carranza, who remained victorious, gave the force of law to the reforms promised in his revolutionary decrees. The text of the document basically repeated the provisions of the constitution of 1857, but added three fundamentally important articles to them. Article three provided for the introduction of universal free primary education; Article 27 declared all lands, waters and mineral resources on Mexican territory to be national property, and also declared the need for the division of large latifundia and established the principles and procedure for carrying out agrarian reform; Article 123 was an extensive labor code.

Reconstruction period.

Carranza had the foresight to introduce a provision on agrarian reform into the constitution, although he himself held more conservative views on this issue. In foreign policy, Carranza was guided by some of the principles put forward earlier, and maintained Mexico's neutrality in the First World War. On the eve of the 1920 elections, an uprising began in the state of Sonora under the leadership of generals Obregon, Adolfo de la Huerta and Plutarco Elias Calles (1877–1945). The rebels moved troops to the capital; Carranza tried to escape, but was captured and shot. For the next 14 years, Mexico was ruled by Obregón and Calles: they established peace in the country and began to implement some reforms.

Obregón was the first president to begin to implement the ideals of the revolution. He distributed 1.1 million hectares of land among peasants and supported the labor movement. The Minister of Education, José Vasconcelos, launched a broad educational program in the countryside and contributed to the cultural flowering of Mexico in the 1920s, called the “Mexican Renaissance.”

Calles became president in 1924 and effectively remained in power for ten years. He continued the policy of patronage of the labor movement and the distribution of lands of large latifundia. At the same time, many small family farms were created, which were trained in modern agricultural technologies. Calles accelerated the implementation of the program for the construction of rural schools, launched an irrigation campaign, stimulated the construction of roads, the development of industry and finance.

The internal political situation in Mexico during these years was characterized by instability, which was aggravated by contradictions with the United States. Any change of government was accompanied by riots - in 1923–1924, 1927 and 1929. The implementation of the anti-clerical program stated in the constitution caused a sharp deterioration in relations between the state and the church. The refusal of the clergy to comply with the provisions of the constitution led to the closure of church schools, to which the church responded by temporarily stopping religious worship in churches from August 1, 1926. For three years, from 1926 to 1929, the so-called fire burned in Mexico. Cristeros uprising. Church supporters, mostly peasants, killed government emissaries and burned secular schools. The uprising was suppressed by government troops.

There were constant diplomatic conflicts with the United States related to American oil companies in Mexico. The Bucarelli Agreement, developed in 1923 by a joint diplomatic commission, resolved a number of the most pressing problems and led to recognition of the Obregón government by the United States.

In violation of previously reached agreements, the Calles government in 1925 began to prepare a law to implement Article 27 of the 1917 Constitution, concerning the property and land holdings of American companies. This again strained relations between Mexico and the United States. Things were heading towards a severance of diplomatic relations, if not to armed intervention, which the Mexicans considered inevitable. The situation eased in 1927, when the skilled diplomat Dwight Morrow became US ambassador to Mexico. Following the course of the good neighbor policy proclaimed by Roosevelt, he was able to find a compromise in solving the most pressing problems.

Obregón's assassination in July 1928 during the election campaign created a political vacuum that only Calles could fill, and from 1928 to 1934 he effectively ruled the country behind three successive presidents. In general, these were years of conservatism, corruption, economic stagnation and disappointment. Despite everything, 1929 became a record year for the amount of land distributed among peasants; in the same year, the state reached an agreement with the church, and the National Revolutionary Party was created, renamed in 1946 to the Institutional Revolutionary Party, and in 1931 the government adopted a new labor code.

Continuation of the revolution.

In 1934, during the election of a new president for a six-year term, Calles supported the candidacy of Lazaro Cardenas (1895–1970). During the election campaign, Cardenas reiterated his commitment to the ideals of the revolution, traveled all over the country and directly communicated with ordinary people. The new president gradually took full power into his own hands and forced Calles to leave Mexico.

Cárdenas's progressive government launched a broad reform campaign. The army and the ruling party were reorganized. Cardenas dramatically accelerated agrarian reform and distributed more land to peasants than previous presidents combined. By 1940, ejidos (collective peasant farms) occupied more than half of all arable land in Mexico. The trade union movement was revived; A broad educational program was carried out, which included intensive work among the Indian population. The reform movement reached its peak in 1938, when Cardenas nationalized the property of North American and British oil companies.

1990s and early 2000s.

By 1940, Cardenas came to the conclusion that the country needed a respite in order to consolidate the transformation. Therefore, in the presidential elections, he supported the candidacy of General Manuel Avilo Camacho (1897–1955), a man of moderate conservative views. The new president favored the church, patronized private land ownership and put Fidel Velázquez at the head of the trade union movement, who largely shared his views. In 1942, he signed a number of agreements with the United States and settled the conflict that arose in 1938 in connection with the nationalization of the oil industry. In response, the United States pledged to provide financial assistance in stabilizing the Mexican peso, building roads and industrializing the country.

The Second World War had a significant impact on the development of the country. Mexico became an ally of the anti-Hitler coalition and declared war on the Axis countries. She participated in the work of the guard service, supplied the Allies with raw materials and labor, and three hundred Mexican pilots served at air bases in the Philippine Islands and later in Taiwan. Financial and technological assistance from the United States allowed Mexico to modernize its railroads and industry. Mexico was forced to develop its own production partly because it lost European imports due to the war. The war raised world prices, created favorable conditions for trade, and allowed Mexico to accumulate foreign exchange reserves, which were used for the needs of industrialization. Finally, the war brought Mexico onto the stage of world politics, helped it get rid of its provincialism complex, and increased the country's international prestige.

From 1946 to 1952, Mexico was ruled by Miguel Aleman, the first civilian president since Madero. Under him, the political influence of big capital increased, agreements were signed with the church and with foreign investors, and friendly relations with the United States were consolidated. The Alemán government focused its main efforts on implementing programs of industrialization, regional industrial development, irrigation, and the introduction of modern agricultural technologies. It was a period of economic growth, grandiose public projects, and large-scale construction.

Aleman's excessive projects and promises and the ensuing economic crisis created considerable difficulties for President Adolfo Ruiz Cortines (1952–1958). However, the president managed to restore the pace of development of the Mexican economy and curb corruption. He focused on modernizing ports and maritime transport. Under him, the distribution of land to peasants was resumed, and social assistance to workers was expanded.

Cortines' policy was continued by Adolfo López Mateos (1958–1964). He widely promoted the concept of Mexican identity at home and abroad, curbed extremism, enacted tax reform, nationalized the energy and film industries, accelerated land reform and launched an 11-year program to develop rural education.

Gustavo Díaz Ordaz, president from 1964–1970, followed a moderate course, maneuvering between conservative and reformist tendencies both in the country and in the ruling party. During his reign, production developed at an extremely rapid pace with an annual increase in the gross national product of 6.5%. Per capita income has increased sharply. However, the inadequate distribution of material wealth did not make it possible to effectively solve problems in the field of education and social security of a rapidly growing population. In 1967, the largest one-time distribution of land in the history of Mexico was carried out - 1 million hectares. At the same time, behind the façade of economic success, social tension grew, which resulted in student unrest in the summer and autumn of 1968. The shooting of a peaceful student demonstration on the Square of Three Cultures on October 2, 1968, which resulted in hundreds of victims, formed a glaring contrast with the festivities marking the opening of the Olympic Games that took place in the same month. In 1969, the first metro lines were opened in Mexico City. In August 1970, Díaz Ordaz settled all border disputes between the two countries with US President Richard Nixon.

Luis Echeverría Alvarez was elected president in 1970. In 1973, his government passed a law strictly controlling foreign investment in Mexico. Echeverría strengthened Mexico's ties with other Latin American countries, primarily Cuba, Peru and Chile. In 1972, Mexico established diplomatic relations with China.

The election of José López Portillo (1976–1982) to the presidency coincided with the discovery of large oil fields in the states of Chiapas and Tabasco and offshore the Gulf of Campeche. Between 1976 and 1982 Mexico tripled its oil production and became one of the leading oil-producing countries. Rising oil prices brought enormous profits to the country, to which were added large loans, mainly from US banks, guaranteed by revenues from oil sales.

The Mexican oil boom ended in 1981 with falling oil prices and declining oil sales. By the summer of 1982, the country could no longer make the necessary payments on foreign loans. At the same time, wealthy Mexicans were exporting huge amounts of currency outside the country, draining foreign exchange reserves needed for imports. In this situation, Lopez Portillo took a number of emergency measures. He nationalized the banks and imposed strict controls on their external operations, obtained long-term loans from the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the lending banks, carried out a 75 percent devaluation of the Mexican peso, and sharply reduced government spending and imports. As a result, Mexico entered a period of economic depression.

In December 1982, López Portillo was replaced as president by PRI candidate Miguel de la Madrid Hurtado. He launched a crackdown on corruption and brought criminal charges against two of the most corrupt senior officials of the previous administration. At the same time, he did not touch either Lopez Portillo himself, or the bureaucratic apparatus of the IPR and the trade union leaders associated with him. In accordance with IMF recommendations, de la Madrid and his budget planning minister, Carlos Salinas de Gortari, carried out the tight fiscal policies initiated by the previous president.

In the presidential elections of 1988, intense rivalry developed between Carlos Salinas de Gortari and Cuauhtemoc Cardenas, who a year earlier had left the PRI, creating the National Democratic Front. Despite the disputed election results, Salinas was proclaimed president. In order to mitigate the consequences of the financial crisis, he developed a program to protect the poor, called the National Solidarity Program. In particular, it provided for cooperation between the central government and representatives of local authorities, who themselves determined priorities in the economic development of their territories. Salinas generously subsidized this program ($1.3 billion by 1993).

Salinas pursued a policy of rapprochement with the Roman Catholic Church, which had long been considered an enemy of the revolution. He invited church leaders to his presidential inauguration, restored relations with the Vatican, softened the anticlerical provisions of the constitution, and invited Pope John Paul II to participate in the opening of a charitable project in the slums of Mexico City. All these symbolic gestures were designed to win over Mexican Catholics, who made up the vast majority of the country's population.

In November 1993, Mexico and the United States signed a free trade agreement (NAFTA). The agreement was expected to revitalize the Mexican economy and create more jobs for Mexicans. At the end of the year, Salinas announced PRI candidate Luis Donaldo Colosio as his presidential successor. Mexico has been invited to join member countries of the Asia-Pacific Economic Forum (APEC), an informal organization comprising the United States, Canada, Australia, New Zealand and 11 Asian countries that holds annual advisory councils on trade issues.

In 1992, the ruling PRI managed, in a bitter struggle with the conservative National Action Party and the left PDR, created by C. Cardenas, to win the majority of gubernatorial posts. The opposition managed to defeat only Chihuahua and Guanajuato. She accused the ruling party of rigging the vote. Under public pressure, Congress adopted constitutional amendments in August 1993 that democratized the electoral system.

After 14 months of negotiations, the US and Mexican governments signed a free trade agreement. On January 1, 1994, the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) came into force. In accordance with it, Mexico pledged to liberalize its market for North American financial transactions, open access to firms from the United States and Canada to its telecommunications, remove restrictions on the activities of joint ventures, etc. The greatest indignation of the peasants was caused by the fact that the Mexican authorities, contrary to the previous provisions of the constitution, recognized the possibility of alienation, purchase and division of communal lands. On January 1, 1994, the military-political organization Zapatista Army of National Liberation (EZLN), based on the Indian population of the state of Chiapas, raised an uprising in the state, demanding recognition of land rights, opportunities for the development of Indian culture, social and economic progress of the region, as well as the implementation of broad democratization. EZLN forces occupied a number of settlements, but were pushed back by government forces. At least 145 people died. Human rights activists blamed the army for numerous executions and arrests. Subsequently, active hostilities in the state ceased and developed into a kind of “low-intensity war.”

The opposition public demanded a political settlement of the conflict, but negotiations on this topic, despite some progress, generally proved to be ineffective.

On the eve of the 1994 general elections, a constitutional amendment was adopted that expanded the possibilities of public control over the course of elections. The opposition was allowed access to the media. More equal opportunities for campaign financing were ensured. Disagreements within Mexico's ruling circles grew. In March 1994, the PRI presidential candidate Luis Donaldo Colosio was assassinated (later, in August of the same year, the PRI general secretary was assassinated). President Salinas appointed economist Ernesto Zedillo Ponce de Leon as the new candidate. For the first time, televised debates were held between the main contenders for the presidency. In July 1994, Zedillo was elected head of state, receiving 50.2% of the vote; PNM candidate Diego Fernandez de Cevallos received almost 27% of the votes, C. Cardenas from the PDR received over 17%. The PRI managed to maintain a significant majority in both houses of Congress.

Having assumed the presidency, Zedillo was faced with an acute monetary and financial crisis, a fall in the value of the Mexican peso and capital flight from the country. At the beginning of 1995, an economic recession followed; more than 250 thousand people lost their jobs (in total, 2.4 million jobs were lost in the first half of 1995). The government devalued the national currency, introduced price controls, froze wages and announced a new privatization program. The United States provided Mexico with assistance in the amount of $18 billion and loan guarantees worth $20 billion, the IMF and the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development - by $28 billion. Then the authorities increased the value added tax, prices for fuel and electricity, and reduced government expenses and limited wage growth. As a result, the Zedillo government managed to reduce inflation, overcome the trade deficit, and in 1996, achieve growth in GNP and begin to repay loan debts. It has promised to allocate significant funds to fight poverty. In 1999, the IMF provided Mexico with a 17-month loan of more than $4 billion, which was the precondition for further international loans of almost $20 billion.

Regarding the crisis in Chiapas, Zedillo promised to guarantee the rights of the Indians and help develop the region, but refused to implement reforms on a national scale, especially land reforms.

The ruling PRI continued to be rocked by political scandals. Relatives of former President Salinas were accused of involvement in the murder of the PRI general secretary, corruption, embezzlement and abuses during privatization and received multi-year prison sentences. A number of high-ranking police officers and army officers were put on trial for connections with the drug mafia.

In the parliamentary and local elections in July 1997, the PRI lost its majority in the Chamber of Deputies for the first time. The opposition PDR and MHP won several more seats than the ruling party. The first direct elections for the mayor of the capital were won by the leader of the PRD, C. Cardenas, who collected more than 47% of the votes, and the PND won the gubernatorial elections in the states of Nuevo Leon and Queretaro. Thus, the PRI retained power in 25 states, and the PAP in 6. The PRI also lost votes in the municipal elections.

In subsequent years, the PRI's power system continued to erode, and the party lost several more gubernatorial posts. In 1999, a coalition of the PDR and the leftist Labor Party won the gubernatorial elections in Baja California Sur; The opposition also won in Nayarit. As a result, the PRI retained power in only 21 states. The fall in the government's popularity was also contributed to by the violent suppression of a university strike in 2000. To attract the sympathy of voters, the party decided to abolish the practice of appointing a presidential candidate by presidential decree and introduce a system of internal party elections.

Mexico in the 21st century

The general elections in 2000 radically changed the political situation in the country. The PRI lost power for the first time in Mexico. Its presidential candidate Francisco Labastida received only 36.1% of the votes, losing to the MHP-Greens bloc candidate Vicente Fox, who received 42.5% of the votes. C. Cárdenas, nominated by the bloc of PDR, PT and a number of small left parties, won 16.6%, Gilberto Rincón (Social Democracy Party) - 1.6%, Manuel Camacho (Democratic Center Party) - 0.6% and Porfirio Muñoz from the Authentic Party of the Mexican Revolution - 0.4%. However, the coalition that came to power failed to obtain an absolute majority of seats in Congress.

The PRI again lost the election for mayor of the capital and lost the post of governor of Chiapas.

The President of Mexico since 2000 has been Vicente Fox Quesada. He was born in 1942, studied management in Mexico City and Harvard University, then worked for the Coca-Cola concern, where he was responsible for work in Central America, founded an agricultural company and his own factory. In 1987 he joined the conservative National Action Party. In 1988, Fox was elected to Congress, and in 1995 he won the gubernatorial elections in the state of Guanajuato.

Upon assuming the presidency, Vicente Fox promised to implement fundamental changes. But by 2003, he had failed to achieve the implementation of his program and promises: to privatize the energy sector, agree to liberalize the migration of Mexicans to the United States, create 1 million new jobs and resolve the conflict in Chiapas. The devastation of the peasantry, suffering from the effects of NAFTA, continued. As a result, during the 2003 parliamentary elections, the ruling PAP lost a quarter of the votes and about 70 seats in the Chamber of Deputies, and the PRI again came out on top.

On July 10, 2006, the next presidential elections were held in Mexico. The candidate from the ruling National Action Party, Felipe Calderon, won, receiving 35.88% of the vote. 35.31% of voters voted for his main rival, the leader of the opposition Party of the Democratic Revolution (PDR), Andres Manuel Lopez Obrador.

On December 1, 2006, Felipe Calderona took office. He began a decisive fight against drug crime. Mexico's largest drug cartels are Los Zetas, which controls the eastern part of the country, and Sinaloa, which operates in the western part. To capture the leaders of the criminal world, the Mexican army carried out special operations that led to some success. Thus, in 2011, a number of leaders and leading figures of the Los Zetas cartel were detained, but it is premature to talk about victory over it.

Despite the active intervention of the army, crime in the country has increased, although it has stabilized somewhat. A wave of bloodshed swept across the country. During the six years of Calderon's presidency, tens of thousands of people died during this struggle. At the same time, we must not forget that the creation of an anti-terrorism and anti-drug system in Mexico is carried out by the security agencies of the United States. Both Vicente Fox and then Felipe Calderon adhered and continue to adhere to a pro-American course on almost all fundamental issues of domestic and foreign policy.

Mexican ruling circles believed that such a strategic and tactical course towards the United States would ensure the country's rise to the level of highly developed states and solve the problems of socio-economic development. However, rapprochement with its northern neighbors was accompanied by an aggravation of the domestic political situation, and the global financial crisis of 2008–2009 aggravated Mexico’s difficult position in the global economy.

Per capita income is about three times lower than in the United States; income distribution remains highly uneven.

Mexico's new president, Enrique Peña Nieto, the Institutional Revolutionary Party candidate elected to office on July 1, 2012 (38.21% of the vote), will also likely pursue pro-American policies. The official assumption of office took place on December 1, 2012.

The representative of the Party of Democratic Revolution (PDR), Andrés Manuel López Obrador, took second place with 31.59% of the vote. Obrador did not recognize the election results, considering them unfair. This is not the first time that a candidate from the Party of Democratic Revolution has not recognized the results of the vote: the 2006 presidential elections ended with a campaign launched after the end by López Obrador, who demanded a recount. The left-wing candidate claimed that it was he, and not Felipe Calderon, who became president, who actually won the election and that the election results were the result of fraud, fraud and bribery. The politician opposes the course of Mexican liberals towards military cooperation with the United States, insisting on the priority of trade and economic relations. He is going to cancel those agreements between Calderon and the US administration, which he considers humiliating to national sovereignty.

According to official data, over the past less than 6 years, more than 47.5 thousand people have died in the country in wars with the drug mafia; unofficial sources cite a much higher figure. To combat organized crime, Enrique Peña Nieto intends to significantly increase spending on the creation of new units in law enforcement agencies, in particular the National Gendarmerie, following the example of Italy, France and Colombia. Its number will be 40 thousand people. In addition, the staff of the Mexican federal police, created specifically to combat the drug mafia, will be increased by another 35 thousand people.

Enrique Peña Nieto is going to carry out reforms in the energy industry and modernize the country's oil industry with the involvement of private capital.

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Mexico City (capital of Mexico) Mexico City(Méjico, México), the capital of Mexico, the most important economic, political and cultural center of the country. Located in the southern part of the Mexican Highlands, in the intermontane basin, at an average altitude of 2240 m. The climate is subtropical. The average temperature in January is 11.6 °C, in July 16 °C, the warmest month (April) is 18 °C. Precipitation is 757 mm per year. M. experiences difficulties in water supply; mainly groundwater is used. Their disorderly consumption causes the subsidence of some parts of the city. Earthquakes are frequent in Moscow (the last one was in 1961). Population 7006 thousand people (1970). Within the Greater Moscow agglomeration - about 8.6 million inhabitants (1970) (in 1900 without the federal district - 368 thousand inhabitants, in 1950 - 2234 thousand inhabitants, in 1967 - 3353 thousand inhabitants).

City government. M., together with its suburbs, forms a federal district, which is governed by a governor appointed by the President of Mexico.

Historical reference. M. was founded on the site of the city founded in 1325 by the Aztecs. Tenochtitlan after its destruction in 1521 by the Spanish conquerors. Became the capital of the colony of New Spain. In 1624 and 1692, popular uprisings against colonial oppression took place in the city. Since September 28, 1821, Mexico has been the capital of independent Mexico. During the Mexican-American War of 1846-48 it was occupied by US troops (1847-1848), and during the Mexican expedition of 1861-1867 by French troops (June 1863 - February 1867). During the Mexican Revolution of 1910-17, M. in 1914 was occupied by peasant partisan detachments. In the 20th century the city becomes the most important economic and political center of the country. After World War II (1939-45), as a result of the emergence of new industries, Mexico grew rapidly.

Economy. Mexico's growth and importance were facilitated by its central position in the system of Mexico's main transport routes. Moscow is a junction of railways and highways, a major center of international air services. Despite the lack of raw materials and energy base, Moldova's industry continues to develop. The federal district's share in the number of employees is about 1/3, in the value of industrial products about 2/5. 1/4 of government investment falls on M. In industry, car assembly, electrical, textile, chemical, and food enterprises are of particular importance; pigment metallurgy, processing of oil and gas supplied through pipelines from the Gulf Coast. M. is one of the largest trading and banking centers in Latin America. Due to the excessive concentration of population, industrial enterprises, and vehicles, the deterioration of environmental conditions is sharply felt.

Architecture. In the Old City, located on the site of the ancient capital of the Aztecs, with a rectangular network of streets, there are: in the Plaza de la Constitución, or Zocalo, a cathedral (1563-1667, architect C. de Arciniega, A. Peresres de Castañeda, etc.; completed in late 18th - early 19th centuries; a combination of baroque and classicism), the baroque church of Sagrario Metropolitano (1749-68, architect L. Rodriguez) and the National Palace (1692-99, architect D. de Valverde, completed in 1929); Hospital Jesus Nasareno (1524-35, architect P. Vasquez; completed in the 20th century), numerous monasteries of the 17th century. In the Gustavo Madero area there is the Basilica of Nuestra Señora de Guadalupe (1695-1709, architect P. de Arrieta). In the outskirts of Cuicuilco (now the urban area of ​​Tlalpan), an ancient pyramid (about 450 BC) has been preserved, and on the northern outskirts (Tenayuca) there is an Aztec pyramid. In the 18th century M. became the largest city in America; re-planned since 1737; in 1750 a plan for a new district in the east was created; Numerous churches, Jesuit colleges, and richly decorated mansions were built. In the 19th - early 20th centuries. M. is growing rapidly. Main streets are being laid (Paseo de la Reforma, etc.); To the west, a business center with avenues and a park is being built, western and southwestern bourgeois areas, northern and eastern industrial and working-class areas are being built up. In urban architecture, classicism of the 1st half of the 19th century. (Mining school, 1797-1813, architect M. Tolsa) gives way to the eclecticism of the 2nd half of the 19th - early 20th centuries. (Palace of Fine Arts, 1904-34, architect A. Boari). In the 1st half of the 20th century. Work is underway to reconstruct Moscow (laying Insurgentes Avenue, 1924; development of a master plan since 1932; construction of a number of residential areas since 1948). In the central, business part, skyscrapers (hotels, banks, shopping centers) are being built. A university, a stadium, and new development areas are being created in the south; new industrial zones are being created in the north, the residents of which (1.5 million migrants from rural areas) are deprived of the necessary amenities. Among the buildings of the 20-40s. the buildings of the architect C. Obregón Santasilla (Ministry of Health, 1926-29), J. Villagran García (hygiene, 1925-26; National Institute of Cardiology, 1939-43), E. Yañez (building of the electricians' union, 1938-40), M Pani (National Conservatory, 1945). The largest building of the 20th century. in M. - University Town. In the 50-60s. In M., high-rise buildings and residential complexes are being built (Miguel Aleman, Benito Juarez, etc.), new urban areas are being built up (Pedregal. Nonoalco-Tlatellolco, with the Square of the Three Cultures, etc. ), the Ruta Amistad ring highway is being laid; especially many projects were carried out by architects P. Ramirez Vazquez (National Auditorium, mid-60s; Azteca Stadium, 1968), L. Barragan (villas in the Pedregal area), J. O'Gorman (numerous mansions), F. Candela (Church of La Virgen Milagrosa, 1954; Sports Palace, 1968), M. Goeritz [towers at the entrance to Ciudad Satellite (satellite city), 1957-58]. Significant works of monumental and decorative art are the paintings of D. Rivera, X . K. Orozco, D. Siqueiros in the National Preparatory School and the Palace of Fine Arts, mosaics of Siqueiros, Rivera, J. Chavez Morado, O'Gorman on the facades of the University City buildings. Sculptural monuments: Charles IV (bronze, 1803, M. Tolsá), Cuauhtemoc (bronze, 1878-87, M. Noreña). Monument to the Revolution (1933-38, architect C. Obregón Santasilla).

Educational, scientific and cultural institutions. Mexico is home to the country's largest universities - the National Autonomous University and the National Polytechnic Institute, as well as the Workers' University, the Women's University, the American, Iberoamerican, and Anahuac universities, the University of La Salle de Mexico, the Higher School of Engineers, the National Conservatory, and the School of Theater Arts at the National Institute. arts National School of Agriculture, National School of History and Anthropology, National School of Plastic Arts, School of Medicine and Health and many others; scientific institutions - National Academy of Sciences, Mexican Academy of Language, Mexican Academy of History, Mexican Academy of Law and Legislation, National Mexican Academy of Medicine, National Astronomical Observatory and a number of others; there are more than 20 large libraries, including the National Library (over 800 thousand volumes), the library of the National Academy of Sciences (over 250 thousand volumes), etc.; 13 museums, including the National Museum of Anthropology, the National Museum of History; Gallery of Modern and Ancient Art, Gallery of Painting and Sculpture of San Carlos, Museum of Contemporary Art, Museum of Religious Art, Museum of Mexican Flora and Fauna, etc.

In 1972 they worked: the National Opera, the National Symphony Orchestra, the Choir of the music department of the National Institute of Arts; theater and concert halls - “Del Bosque”, “Manuel M. Ponce”, “Ferrocarilero”; drama theaters - "Jimenez Rueda", "Jola", "Hidalgo", "Reforma", "Insurgentes", "Tepeyac", "Del Granero", etc. There is a Theater for children, a puppet theater "Guignol".

Lit.: Vargas Martinez U., La ciudad de México (1325-1960), Mex., 1961; Marrociui J, M., La ciudad de Mexico, v. 1-3, Mekh., 1900-03; Romero Flores J., Mexico. Historia de una gran ciudad, Méch., 1953.

Great Soviet Encyclopedia. - M.: Soviet Encyclopedia. 1969-1978 .

See what “Mexico City (the capital of Mexico)” is in other dictionaries:

Capital of Mexico. The city was founded by the Aztecs in 1325 under the name Tenochtitlan, the place of the cactus rock. But since in this city there were temples in honor of the Aztec god of war Mehitli, the second name Mexico City (ko suffix of the place) was also in use. Exactly this… … Geographical encyclopedia Illustrated Encyclopedic Dictionary - I Mexico City (Méjico, México) is a state in Central Mexico. Area 21.5 thousand km2. Population 3.8 million people (1970). Administrative center of Toluca. Most of the territory is mountainous (altitude up to 4373 m). Agriculture is dominated by... Great Soviet Encyclopedia

Mexico City- Mexico City. Schematic plan. Mexico City (México, Méjico), the capital of Mexico, the main political, economic and cultural center of the country. Located in the southern part of the Mexican Highlands, in a fertile highland basin at an altitude of 2240 m, near... ... Encyclopedic reference book "Latin America"