The construction of the Panama Canal was one of the largest and most complex construction projects undertaken by mankind. The Panama Canal had an invaluable influence on the development of shipping and the economy as a whole in the Western Hemisphere and throughout the world, which led to its extremely high geopolitical significance. Thanks to the Panama Canal, the sea route from New York to San Francisco was reduced from 22.5 thousand km to 9.5 thousand km.

The narrow isthmus connecting North and South America has been considered a very promising place for creating the shortest route between the Atlantic and Pacific oceans since the 16th century. In the 19th century, the development of technology and the need for such a route reached a point where the plan to create a canal through Panama seemed quite feasible.

In the 19th century, the development of technology and the need for such a route reached a point where the plan to create a canal through Panama seemed quite feasible.

1910 Map of the planned canal.

Inspired by the 10-year construction of the Suez Canal, the international company La Société Internationale du Canal Interocéanique in 1879 bought from the engineer Wise for 10 million francs the concession for the construction of the Panama Canal, which he received from the Colombian government, which controlled Panama at that time.

Fundraising for large-scale construction was led by Ferdinand Lesseps. Success with the Suez Canal helped him raise millions for the new project.

Soon after the canal design began, it became clear that this endeavor would be much more difficult to implement than digging a canal at sea level through a sandy desert. After all, the proposed route, 65 kilometers long, passed through rocky and sometimes mountainous terrain, while it was crossed by powerful rivers. And, most importantly, tropical diseases posed enormous health risks to workers.

However, Lesseps' optimistic plan envisaged the construction of a canal costing $120 million in just 6 years. The 40,000-strong team, almost entirely consisting of workers from the West Indies, was headed by engineers from France.

1885 French Panama Canal employees pose for a photograph.

Construction began in 1881.

1885 The workers came to receive their wages.

The Suez experience was of little help. It would probably be better in the long run if they didn't have the Suez Canal in their past.
David McCullough, "The Way Between the Seas"

1885 Jamaican workers push a cart loaded with dirt along a narrow gauge railway.

The project turned out to be a disaster. It quickly became apparent that building a canal at sea level was impossible and that the only workable plan was to build a chain of locks. At the same time, Lesseps stubbornly adhered to the plan to build a single-level canal.

1900 Workers carry out excavation work manually.

Meanwhile, workers and engineers died from malaria, yellow fever and dysentery, and construction was interrupted by frequent floods and landslides. By the time the gateway plan was adopted, it was already too late. An estimated 22,000 workers died. Construction was years behind schedule and cost hundreds of millions over budget.

1910 Abandoned French equipment in the canal zone.

The company went bankrupt and collapsed, destroying the hopes of 800 thousand investors. In 1893, Lesseps was found guilty of fraud and mismanagement and died in disgrace two years later.

1906 A man stands next to an abandoned French dredger.

In 1903, with the secret support of the United States, Panama seceded from Colombia and in return awarded the US rights to the canal. The following year, the United States acquired the remains of the French company and continued construction.

1906 President Theodore Roosevelt sits in the cab of a crane during a visit to the canal construction site.

I took the canal zone and let Congress debate; and while the debate continues, the channel does the same.
Theodore Roosevelt

1908 American engineers sent by President Roosevelt.

Faced with the same disease problem as the French, the Americans embarked on an aggressive mosquito eradication campaign. (The link between malaria and mosquitoes was still a very new theory back then). This sharply reduced the incidence of illness and increased productivity.

1910 Mosquito exterminator at work in the canal area.

The channel of the Chagres River was blocked by the Gatun Dam, creating Lake Gatun, the largest artificial lake of those times. It stretches across half of a narrow isthmus.

January 1907. Earthworks at the site of the Gatun lock.

Massive locks were built at both ends of the canal on the Atlantic and Pacific oceans. These 33-meter-wide structures allowed ships to pass through a series of chambers with controlled water levels, rising to the height of Gatun Lake and the canal, 26 meters above sea level.

1910

The most difficult was the passage of the 13-kilometer section of Culebra through a mountain range, 64 meters high. 27 thousand tons of dynamite were used to blow up almost 80 million cubic meters of earth removed by steam shovels and trains.

1907 A dredge removes soil after a landslide in Culebra.

Due to an incorrect assessment of the composition of geological strata, excavation work was constantly subject to unpredictable landslides, the consequences of which sometimes took several months to combat.

1910 The railway, displaced after a landslide.


April 8, 1910. A man stands on the west bank next to the Pedro Miguel Lock under construction.


November 1910. President William Howard Taft (left) visiting Gatun Lock with Supreme Court Justice Oliver Wendell Holmes (seated right) and Chief Engineer Colonel George Goethals (standing right).


November 10, 1912. Construction of the Miraflores lock.


August 1912. A man is standing in one of the locks.


June 1912. View of the construction of the Culebra section from the western shore.


August 6, 1912.


November 1912. View from the top of Gatun Lock looking north towards the Atlantic Ocean.


June 1913. One of the deepest points on the Culebra stretch.


1913


1913


1913


November 1913. Workers are struggling with the consequences of a landslide.


1913 Workers take a break at the top of the lock.


1913 The train and the crane crossed paths at the Pedro Miguel lock.


1913 Gateway during construction.


1913 Engineers stand in front of the canal's massive sluice gates.


August 8, 1913. Construction of the Gatun Lock between the Atlantic Ocean and Lake Gatun.


February 1, 1914. Men watch a dredger work to clean up the aftermath of a landslide in Cucarache.


1913 The spillway of the Gatun Dam, which separates the artificial Gatun Lake, the main part of the canal.

On December 10, 1913, a passable water route between the two oceans was finally created. On January 7, 1914, the French floating crane Alexandre La Valley made its first passage through the canal.

October 9, 1913. An explosion near the city of Gamboa opens the way for the canal to the Pacific Ocean.


1913 The explosion of the dam that separated the canal from the Atlantic Ocean.

Today, 4% of all world trade passes through the Panama Canal, about 15 thousand ships a year. Plans are underway to build an additional set of wide locks, as well as a competing channel through Nicaragua.

The largest fee for passage through the canal is 142 thousand for a cruise ship. The smallest fee was $0.36 for adventurer Richard Halliburton, who swam across the canal through the locks in 1928.

1913


1914


October 1913. The Miraflores Lock gate opens for inspection.


September 26, 1913. Tug U.S. Gaton is the first to pass through the Gatun lock.


April 29, 1915. S.S. Kronland passes through the Panama Canal.

The length of the Panama Canal from deep to deep water is 81.6 km, the minimum width is 150 m, the guaranteed depth is 12 m, the size of the chambers of the paired locks is 305 by 33.5 m. The watershed section of the canal, 51 km long, lies at an altitude of 25.9 m above sea level Entering from the Atlantic Ocean, ships rise through the three steps of the Gatun Locks into the artificial Lake Gatun, which is formed by the Gatun Dam across the Chagres River and lies at an altitude of 25.9 m above sea level. In 1935, the reservoir's capacity was increased by the construction of the Madden Dam on the upper Chagres, creating Lake Madden. From Lake Gatun, ships pass the 12-kilometer Culebra Notch, descend through the Pedro Miguel locks into Lake Miraflores (16 m above sea level), pass the two-stage Miraflores locks and exit into the Gulf of Panama. The average transit time for ships through the canal is 7–8 hours. Two-way traffic is not possible only for large-tonnage vessels in the Culebra excavation section.

The first European to cross the Isthmus of Panama was the Spanish conquistador Vasco Nunez de Balboa in 1513. During the colonial era, plans to build a transoceanic canal were repeatedly raised and never realized. US interest in the idea of ​​​​building a canal became apparent during the California gold rush of 1848. In 1850, the US and Great Britain entered into the Clayton-Bulwer Treaty, according to which the parties refused to acquire exclusive rights to the future canal and pledged to guarantee its neutrality.

In 1878, France received from Colombia, which until 1903 included Panama, a 99-year concession for the construction of the canal. In 1879, a company was created under the leadership of Ferdinand Lesseps, the builder of the Suez Canal, and work began two years later. However, in 1887 the company went bankrupt due to high prices, financial scams and high worker mortality. At that time, the United States was exploring the possibility of laying a transoceanic canal through the territory of Nicaragua, and three years later a commission specially created in 1899 came to the conclusion that this option was more rational. The United States gained freedom of action in 1901 when it concluded the Hay-Pouncefort Treaty with Great Britain, which annulled the previous treaty. The French company was afraid of losing all its investments if a canal was built through Nicaragua and offered the United States all the rights and its property in Panama for $40 million. The North American Commission recommended acceptance of these terms, and in 1902 Congress approved the project and began negotiations with Colombia.

In 1903, under President Roosevelt, the Hay-Herran Treaty on the construction of the canal was signed between the United States and Colombia. However, the Colombian Senate refused to ratify the treaty. Then the United States began to support the Panamanian separatists and did not allow Colombian troops to land on the isthmus to suppress the uprising. As a result, on November 3, 1903, Panama declared its secession from Colombia and its independence as a separate state.

Already on November 18, 1903, the United States and the government of the newly formed republic signed the Hay-Bunau-Varilly Treaty, according to which the North Americans received full control over a 10-mile wide zone running in a strip across the entire isthmus. The United States paid Panama $10 million and pledged to pay another $250,000 annually. At the same time, Panama actually became a US protectorate. In 1914, the United States signed the Thompson-Urrutia Treaty with Colombia, which ensured Colombia's recognition of Panama's independence for certain compensation. The US Senate delayed ratification of the treaty, and only in 1921 Colombia received the promised $25 million.

In 1905, an expert council appointed by President Roosevelt recommended building a lock-free canal, but Congress adopted the lock canal project. At first, the work was carried out under the direction of civil engineers, but from 1907 the construction was taken over by the War Ministry. He also had medical control over sanitary conditions and the treatment of tropical diseases. The French, who began construction, excavated 23 million cubic meters. m of land along the canal route; North Americans still had 208 million cubic meters left to extract. m. The first ship passed through the Isthmus of Panama on August 15, 1914, but the canal actually went into operation after the official opening on June 12, 1920. According to government sources, the construction of the canal cost $380 million.

Panama Canal Zone.

The Hay-Bunau-Varilly Treaty of 1903 gave the United States possession of a total of 1,432 sq. km of Panamanian territory, including lakes Gatun and Alajuela, later renamed Lake Madden. Until 1979, the management of the canal zone was closely linked with the administration of the canal itself. The zone's governor was a general in the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, and the zone had its own police and fire departments, courts, post office, medical facilities, and English-language schools.

Panama Canal in international relations.

In diplomatic relations between Panama and the United States, problems related to the canal zone have always come to the fore. Panama sought to expand its participation in the management of the canal, increase its share of profits, and protested against discrimination against Panamanians working in the zone. Under the Hull-Alfaro Treaty of 1936, some enslaving provisions of the 1903 Treaty were canceled and revised. In particular, the United States renounced the right of military intervention in the internal affairs of Panama and the monopoly on communications across the isthmus, granted the Panamanians the right to trade in the canal zone and increased annual payments to 430 thousand dollars.

The Eisenhower-Remona Treaty of 1955 transferred US property outside the canal zone to Panama worth $24 million, increased the annual rent to $1 million 930 thousand, obligated the US to build a bridge across the canal (completed in 1962) and establish water supply to the cities of Colon and Panama , deprived North American entrepreneurs of a number of benefits, limited discrimination against Panamanians employed in the Canal Zone, and gave the Panamanian government the right to levy taxes on its citizens working in the zone and on foreigners (except Americans) working outside the zone.

In 1959, clashes between Panamanians and US police occurred in the canal zone. After negotiations in 1960, the United States agreed to hang the flags of two states - the United States and Panama - on the border of the zone. In further agreements in 1962, the United States allowed the Panamanian flag to be flown through the zone and agreed to continue discussions on other issues, including equal pay for Americans and Panamanians in the Canal Zone. In January 1964, after American students refused to fly the Panamanian flag along with their flag, further riots broke out, leading to a severance of diplomatic relations. Panama again demanded to reconsider the terms of the 1903 treaty. In April 1964, diplomatic relations were restored.

In 1967, a draft treaty was developed on Panama's sovereignty over the canal zone and the creation of a unified canal management, but in 1970 Panama rejected this project. Negotiations resumed in 1971 led to the signing of two agreements in 1977, according to which on October 1, 1979 the canal zone came under the jurisdiction of Panama, and by 2000 the United States pledged to transfer the canal itself to Panama. However, the North Americans reserved the right to military intervention if necessary to protect the canal and maintain its neutrality. According to the agreements, a Panama Canal Commission was created to operate the canal. Until 1990, the Commission was headed by a US citizen, appointed by the US President; after 1990 and until the transfer of the channel in December 1999, it was headed by a Panamanian citizen, also appointed by the US President.

Characteristic Length 81.6 km Watercourse Entrance Pacific Ocean Estuary Atlantic Ocean Panama Canal at Wikimedia Commons

Panama Canal- a shipping canal connecting the Gulf of Panama of the Pacific Ocean with the Caribbean Sea and the Atlantic Ocean, located on the Isthmus of Panama in the territory of the state of Panama. Length - 81.6 km, including 65.2 km on land and 16.4 km along the bottom of the Panama and Limon bays (for the passage of ships to deep water).

The construction of the Panama Canal was one of the largest and most complex construction projects undertaken by mankind. The Panama Canal had an invaluable influence on the development of shipping and the economy as a whole in the Western Hemisphere and throughout the Earth, which determined its extremely high geopolitical significance. Thanks to the Panama Canal, the sea route from New York to San Francisco was reduced from 22.5 thousand km to 9.5 thousand km.

The canal allows vessels of all types to pass through, from private yachts to huge tankers and container ships. The maximum size of a ship that can transit the Panama Canal has become a de facto standard in shipbuilding, called Panamax.

Vessels are guided through the Panama Canal by the Panama Canal Pilot Service. The average time for a vessel to pass through the canal is 9 hours, the minimum is 4 hours 10 minutes. Maximum throughput is 48 vessels per day. Every year, about 17.5 thousand ships carrying more than 203 million tons of cargo pass through the canal structures. By 2002, more than 800 thousand vessels had already used the canal’s services.

In December 2010, the canal was closed to ships for the first time in 95 years due to bad weather and rising water levels as a result of incessant rainfall.

Story

Construction of the canal in 1888

Panama Canal Promotion

The original plan to build a canal connecting the two oceans dates back to the 16th century, but King Philip II of Spain banned the consideration of such projects, since “what God has united, man cannot separate.” In the 1790s. the canal project was developed by Alessandro Malaspina, his team even surveyed the canal construction route.

With the growth of international trade, interest in the canal revived by the early 19th century; in 1814, Spain passed a law establishing an interoceanic canal; in 1825, a similar decision was made by the Congress of Central American States. The discovery of gold in California caused increased interest in the canal problem in the United States, and in 1848, under the Hayes Treaty, the United States received a monopoly right in Nicaragua to build all types of interoceanic communication routes. Great Britain, whose possessions adjoined Nicaragua, hastened to curb the expansion of the United States by concluding with them the Clayton-Bulwer Treaty in 1850 on a joint guarantee of the neutrality and security of the future interoceanic canal. Throughout the 19th century, two main options for the direction of the canal appeared: through Nicaragua (see Nicaraguan Canal) and through Panama.

However, the first attempt to build a shipping route on the Isthmus of Panama dates back only to 1879. The initiative in developing the Panama version was seized by the French. At that time, the attention of the United States was mainly attracted to the Nicaraguan variant. In 1879, in Paris, under the chairmanship of the head of the construction of the Suez Canal, Ferdinand Lesseps, the “General Interoceanic Canal Company” was created, the shares of which were purchased by more than 800 thousand people; the company bought from the engineer Wise for 10 million francs the concession for the construction of the Panama Canal, which he received from the Colombian government in 1878. An international congress convened before the formation of the Panama Canal Company favored a sea-level canal; the cost of the work was planned at 658 million francs and the volume of excavation work was envisaged at 157 million cubic meters. yards In 1887, the idea of ​​a lockless canal had to be abandoned in order to reduce the amount of work, since the company’s funds (1.5 billion francs) were spent mainly on bribing newspapers and members of parliament; only a third was spent on work. As a result, the company stopped making payments on December 14, 1888, and work was soon stopped.

Spanish canal workers, early 1900s

Construction of the canal, 1911

In 1902, the US Congress passed a law requiring the President of the United States to purchase the property of the canal company, shares of the Panama Company railroad and a strip of land 10 miles wide from Colombia for the construction, maintenance and operation of the canal with the right of jurisdiction over the said territory. On January 22, 1903, Colombian Ambassador Thomas Herran and US Secretary of State John Hay signed an agreement under which Colombia leased a strip of land to the United States for a period of 100 years for the construction of the Panama Canal. For the sanction of the government of Colombia, which owned the territory of Panama, to transfer the concession, the United States agreed to pay a lump sum of $10 million and then, after 9 years, $250 thousand annually while maintaining Colombia's sovereignty over the Panama Canal zone. These conditions were formalized in the Hay-Herran Treaty, but the Colombian Senate on August 12, 1903 refused to ratify it, since the concession agreement with the French company expired only in 1904, and according to its terms, if the canal did not begin to function by that time, it was Undoubtedly, all the structures erected by the company were transferred free of charge to Colombia. Interested parties in France and the United States now saw the only way out for the state of Panama to break away from Colombia and, as an independent state, formalize the legal transfer of the concession to the United States. The Frenchman Bunau-Varilla led the separatist movement and, with the assistance of the US navy, carried out the secession of Panama on November 4, 1903; On November 18, on behalf of the “Independent Republic of Panama,” he signed a treaty with the United States modeled on the Hay-Herran Treaty. The US conflict with Colombia was resolved only in 1921.

Under the Treaty of 1903, the United States received in perpetual possession "a zone of land and land under water for the construction, maintenance, operation, sanitary order and protection of the said canal," as provided for in Article 2 of the Treaty. Article 3 gave the United States all rights as if it were the sovereign of the territory. In addition, the United States became the guarantor of the independence of the Republic of Panama and received the right to maintain order in the cities of Panama and Colon in the event that the Republic of Panama, in the opinion of the United States, was unable to maintain order. The economic side of the Treaty repeated the Hay-Herran Treaty, which was not ratified by Colombia. On behalf of Panama, the agreement was signed by French citizen Philippe Bunau-Varilla 2 hours before the official Panama delegation arrived in Washington.

Construction began under the auspices of the US Department of Defense, and Panama actually became a US protectorate.

In 1900, in Havana, Walter Reed and James Carroll discovered that yellow fever was transmitted by mosquitoes, and proposed a method to reduce the danger of yellow fever by destroying mosquito habitats. Remembering the failure of the first attempt to dig a canal, the Americans sent out a mosquito-hunting campaign Aedes aegypti and malarial mosquitoes - carriers of yellow fever and malaria, respectively - a large expedition led by William Crawford Gorgas - 1,500 people. The scale of their activities is eloquently demonstrated by published data: it was necessary to cut down and burn 30 square kilometers of bushes and small trees, mow and burn grass over the same area, drain a million square yards (80 hectares) of swamps, dig 250 thousand feet (76 km) of drainage ditches and restore 2 million feet (600 km) of old ditches, spray 150 thousand gallons (570 thousand liters) of oils that kill mosquito larvae in breeding areas. As shortly before in Havana, this bore fruit: the prevalence of yellow fever and malaria decreased so much that the diseases ceased to be a hindering factor.

Panama Canal (USA), 1940

The US War Department began construction of the canal in 1904. John Frank Stevens became the canal's chief engineer. This time the right project was chosen: locks and lakes. Construction took 10 years, $400 million and 70 thousand workers, of whom, according to American data, about 5,600 people died. On the morning of October 13, 1913, US President Thomas Woodrow Wilson, in the presence of numerous high-ranking guests gathered at the White House, walked to a special table and pressed a gilded button with a majestic gesture. And at the same instant, a powerful explosion shook the humid tropical air four thousand kilometers from Washington, on the Isthmus of Panama. Twenty thousand kilograms of dynamite destroyed the last barrier separating the waters of the Atlantic and Pacific oceans near the city of Gamboa. A four thousand kilometer long cable, specially laid from the jumper at Gamboa to the White House, obediently carried out the will of the president.

The first ship (an ocean-going steamer) passed through the canal on August 15, 1914, but a large landslide in October prevented the opening of traffic in the same 1914. To strengthen the defense on the approaches to the canal, the United States acquired nearby islands: the Pacific islands were received from Panama - Margarita, Perque, Naos, Culebra and Flamenco; The islands of St. were purchased from Denmark in 1917 for 25 million dollars. John, St. Cross and St. Thomas; in Nicaragua in 1928 - the Bread Islands and in Colombia - the islands of Roncador and Quitasueño. The official opening of the canal took place only on June 12, 1920.

In August 1945, Japan planned to bomb the canal.

The Panama Canal was controlled by the United States until December 31, 1999, after which it was transferred to the government of Panama.

Channel configuration

Due to the S-shape of the Isthmus of Panama, the Panama Canal is directed from the southwest (Pacific Ocean side) to the northeast (Atlantic Ocean). The canal consists of two artificial lakes connected by canals and deepened river beds, as well as two groups of locks. From the Atlantic Ocean, the three-chamber gateway “Gatun” connects Limon Bay with Lake Gatun. On the Pacific side, the two-chamber Miraflores lock and the single-chamber Pedro Miguel lock connect Panama Bay with the canal bed. The difference between the level of the World Ocean and the level of the Panama Canal is 25.9 meters. Additional water supply is provided by another reservoir - Lake Alajuela

Huge ferry passing through the canal

All canal locks are double-threaded, which ensures the possibility of simultaneous oncoming traffic of ships along the canal. In practice, however, usually both lines of locks work to allow ships through in the same direction. Dimensions of the lock chambers: width 33.53 m, length 304.8 m, minimum depth 12.55 m. Each chamber holds 101 thousand m³ of water. Guidance of large vessels through locks is provided by special small electric-powered railway locomotives called mules(in honor of mules, which previously served as the main draft force for moving barges along rivers).

The canal administration has established the following passage dimensions for vessels: length - 294.1 m (965 ft), width - 32.3 m (106 ft), draft - 12 m (39.5 ft) in fresh tropical water, height - 57, 91 m (190 ft), measured from the waterline to the highest point of the vessel. In exceptional cases, vessels may be granted permission to pass at a height of 62.5 m (205 ft), provided that the passage is in low water.

Along its length, the canal is crossed by three bridges. A road and a railway have been laid along the canal route between the cities of Panama and Colon.

Payments for channel passage

Canal tolls are officially collected by the Panama Canal Authority, a government agency of Panama. Duty rates are set depending on the type of vessel.

The amount of duty for container ships is calculated depending on their capacity, expressed in TEU (the volume of a standard 20-foot container). From May 1, 2006, the rate is $49 per TEU.

The amount of payment from other vessels is determined depending on their displacement. For 2006, the fee rate was $2.96 per ton up to 10 thousand tons, $2.90 for each of the subsequent 10 thousand tons and $2.85 for each subsequent ton.

The amount of dues for small vessels is calculated based on their length:

The future of the channel

On October 23, 2006, the results of the referendum on the expansion of the Panama Canal were summed up in Panama, which was supported by 79% of the population. The adoption of this plan was facilitated by the Chinese business structures that manage the channel. By 2014, it will be modernized and will be able to handle oil tankers with a displacement of more than 130 thousand tons, which will significantly reduce the time it takes to deliver Venezuelan oil to China. Just by this time, Venezuela promises to increase oil supplies to China to 1 million barrels per day.

During the reconstruction, it is planned to carry out dredging work and build new, wider locks. As a result, by 2014-2015, supertankers with a displacement of up to 170 thousand tons will be able to pass through the Panama Canal. The maximum throughput of the canal will increase to 18.8 thousand vessels per year, cargo turnover - up to 600 million PCUMS. The reconstruction will cost $5.25 billion. Thanks to it, Panama's budget is expected to receive $2.5 billion in annual revenue from the canal by 2015, and by 2025, revenue will increase to $4.3 billion.

The start of work on the construction of the third group of locks is scheduled for August 25, 2009. The Panama Canal Authority entrusted this work to the consortium GUPC (Grupo Unidos por el Canal), which won the construction tender on July 15, 2008, offering to carry out the necessary work for $3 billion 118 million and complete construction by mid-2014. The main member of this consortium is the Spanish company Sacyr Vallehermoso.

Alternative

The territory of Nicaragua was considered as an alternative route for the interoceanic canal. The first preliminary plans for the Nicaraguan Canal arose in the 17th century.

see also

Notes

Links

• Between two oceans: Poseidon's Gate on the website of the magazine "Popular Mechanics"
• Official website of the Panama Canal Authority (Spanish) (English)
• Panama Canal webcams

Panama Canal- a navigable artificial canal, 82 km long, located in Central America, on the Isthmus of Panama, in the Republic of Panama. Connects the Atlantic and Pacific oceans and is critical to international shipping and maritime trade. Construction of the canal began in 1881 and ended in 1914. According to statistics, about 14,000 ships pass through the canal annually, carrying about 203 million tons of cargo.

General information

Channel location

Scheme of passage of the lock complex of Lake Gatun

From the Atlantic Ocean, the Panama Canal begins at the Bahia Limon harbor. Bahía Limón). The harbor houses the deep-water port of Cristobal. Cristóbal), as well as the commercial port of Colon (eng. Colon). Then, a 3.2 km canal leads to the locks of Lake Gatun. The Gatunsky locks complex is 1.9 km long, with its help passing ships rise to the lake level to a height of 26.5 m above sea level. A separate canal, built in 2016, leads to a complex of locks Agua Clara, located parallel to the Gatunsky locks, and designed for the passage of standard vessels Neopanamax.

Ships travel 24.2 km along the artificial Gatun Lake to the natural waterway formed by the Chagres River. Chagres), flowing out of Lake Gatun. Along this river, ships travel 8.5 km and end up in an artificial valley, 12.6 km long, laid across the Culebra mountain range. Culebra). In this section, ships pass under the Centennial Bridge. Behind this section of the canal there is a single-stage Pedro Miguel lock, 1.4 km long, with which ships are lowered to 9.5 m. Behind the lock, at an altitude of 16.5 m above sea level, is the artificial Lake Miraflores, 1.7 km long.

Behind the lake there is a two-stage complex of Miraflores locks, 1.7 km long, with the help of which ships are lowered 16.5 m to sea level. Behind the locks, in the harbor, is the port of Balboa, with developed railway connections and the “Bridge of the Americas”. Not far from here is the capital of Panama - Panama City. A 13.2 km canal leads from the harbor to the Pacific Ocean, opening into the Gulf of Panama.

Channel configuration

Outline map of the Panama Canal

Due to the S-shape of the Isthmus of Panama, the Panama Canal is directed from southeast to northwest. The canal consists of two artificial lakes connected by canals and deepened river beds. There are three groups of locks along the canal. Three-chamber gateway Gatun, from the Atlantic Ocean, provides passage from Limon Bay to Lake Gatun. Double chamber gateway Miraflores and single chamber gateway Pedro Miguel from the Pacific Ocean they provide passage from Panama Bay to the canal bed. A new three-chamber airlock is located parallel to them Cocoli, for the passage of ships Neopanamax. The difference between the levels of the Panama Canal and sea level is 25.9 meters. Lake Alajuela acts as a reservoir and provides additional water supply.

The locks have the ability to ensure simultaneous oncoming traffic of ships along the canal. In practice, this opportunity is almost never used. The old lock chambers are 33.53 m wide, 304.8 m long, minimum depth is 12.55 m, and the volume of water held is 101 thousand m³. Large ships are guided through the locks by small railway locomotives called "mules". The traction force of the electric locomotive is about 11 thousand kg, the speed is 1.6 - 3.2 km/h.

Until 2014, the dimensions of ships passing through the canal were not to exceed the following dimensions: length - 294.1 m, width - 32.3 m, draft - 12 m, height from the waterline to the highest point of the vessel - 57.91 m. In low water conditions, you can obtain permission to pass a vessel with a height of 62.5 m. After the reconstruction of the canal, completed in 2016, the parameters of passing vessels increased and vessels up to 49 m wide, up to 366 m long and with a draft of up to 15 m became acceptable.

Also, during the reconstruction, new lock complexes were built. Along its length, the canal is crossed three times by bridges: the “Bridge of Two Americas” road bridge, the “Century Bridge” road bridge and the “Atlantic Bridge” bridge under construction. Between the Panamanian cities of Panama and Colon there are roads and railways running along the canal route.

History of construction

Prerequisites for creation

Vasco Nunez de Balboa. He was one of the first to explore the Isthmus of Panama at the beginning of the 16th century.

The discovery of Panama occurred in 1501, the discoverer was the Spanish conquistador Rodrigo de Bastidas. His comrade-in-arms, Vasco Nunez de Balboa, was the first to cross the Isthmus of Panama, spending several weeks traveling to the Pacific Ocean. Since that time, the idea arose of connecting the Atlantic and Pacific oceans by water, without making a long journey around South America.

In 1502, Christopher Columbus founded the settlement of Santa Maria de Belém at the mouth of the Belém River. In 1509, the Spaniards founded a colony on the coast of the Gulf of Darien, and ten years later the city of Panama was founded. From the city of Panama and the Pacific Ocean, the extracted valuables were transported to Puerto Bello, to the Atlantic Ocean, along the Royal Route - Camino real.

In 1529, one of the Spanish officers with outstanding knowledge in mathematics and geography, Alvaro de Saavedra Ceron, developed four options for digging a canal. Without having time to acquaint influential persons of the state with these projects, he died. Five years later, King Charles V of Spain ordered the exploration of Panama for the presence of a waterway across the isthmus.

In 1550, the Portuguese sailor Antonio Galvao wrote a book describing four options for digging a canal. At the beginning of the 19th century, the German Alexander Humboldt, a naturalist and traveler, developed nine projects for the construction of a canal.

By the end of the 18th century, the flow of goods along the Royal Route began to dry up and the importance of the route for Spain began to decline. However, for the United States, this path, on the contrary, was increasingly important. In 1846, a treaty of friendship, trade and navigation was concluded between the United States and New Granada. The United States guaranteed the inviolability of the Isthmus of Panama, in return receiving the right to build a railway. In 1849, gold deposits were discovered in California and people flocked to San Francisco. During the construction of the road, significant funds and 60 thousand human lives were spent. Construction of the 80 km railway was completed in 1855. Trying to recoup costs, the company excessively inflated prices for its services and, over time, the number of railway customers decreased, preferring the cheaper, albeit longer, journey around Cape Horn. As a result of this, the road across the Isthmus of Panama fell into disrepair for the second time.

Under French control. 1881-1894

The first stages of canal construction

Since 1850, the Clayton-Bulwer Treaty was in force between the United States and Great Britain, according to which the parties renounced exclusive rights to build the canal. France, which was not bound by any treaty, took advantage of this provision. Entrepreneur Ferdinand de Lesseps, builder of the Suez Canal, created the Universal Interoceanic Canal Company. After Suez, he became a national hero, was elected to the French Academy of Sciences and received the title of engineer, without having any technical education. Having so many titles and unquestioned authority, he easily received permission from the Colombian government to build the canal.

The groundbreaking ceremony took place on January 1, 1880 at the mouth of the Rio Grande River. Up to 19 thousand people worked on the construction of the canal. Despite the breadth and scope of construction, only 10% of the canal was built in five years. The reasons for the delay were both unforeseen technical difficulties and a high percentage of worker illnesses. The proximity of malarial works contributed to the occurrence of outbreaks of yellow fever. The necessary medical care was not provided and the casualties among construction workers were gigantic.

The Isthmus of Panama is a complex geological area - a mountainous area covered with impenetrable jungle and deep swamps. The mountains are a jumbled mixture of hard rock and soft rock. During construction, workers passed six major geological faults and five centers of volcanic activity. Heat, high humidity, tropical rains, and floods of the Chagres River brought their negative impact. If engineers had had complete information about the geology of the isthmus, construction of the canal may not have even begun.

To ensure financing for the project, Lesseps, just as during the construction of the Suez Canal, decided to found a joint-stock company. In the case of the Suez Canal, the idea turned out to be successful and three years after the completion of the Suez Canal, shareholders began to make a profit. But in the case of the Panama Canal, the enterprise ended in complete failure.

Workers on the canal construction

In 1876, Lesseps bought the design of the engineer Vaz and the building permit. 10 million francs were spent for these purposes. According to a report compiled in 1880, the cost of building the canal was estimated at 843 million francs. Construction of the canal began on February 1, 1881. No locks or dams were envisaged; the canal was supposed to pass at sea level, and a tunnel was planned to be built in the area of ​​the pass at the junction of the Veragua and San Blas mountain ranges.

At the end of 1887, guided by the advice of the young engineer Philippe Bunod-Varilla, Lesseps agreed to changes to the project, and it was decided to build a canal with locks. The highest level of the canal was supposed to be 52 meters, taking these circumstances into account, the project required revision. For further work on the project, the famous engineer Gustave Eiffel was called from Paris, who had just finished work on his tower. However, despite all efforts, work on the construction of the canal fell into disrepair and, due to lack of funding, was suspended at around 72 meters.

Trying to improve the financial condition of the project, in 1885 Lesseps and his colleagues decided to issue long-term winning loan bonds. Private companies did not have the right to issue such a loan; the consent of the government and parliament was required. The company, by bribing influential people, was able to obtain permission to issue bonds. About 4 million francs were spent on bribes, permission was received three years after the company’s request. Meanwhile, work on the isthmus was getting worse and worse, and the financial problems could no longer be hidden. Lesseps himself had already lost his former energy, and moral and physical fatigue was taking its toll.

Ferdinand de Lesseps, builder of the Suez and Panama Canals

To stay afloat, the Panama Company issued two more loans that did not require government approval. By raising the rate on them to 10%, she tried to make the shares more attractive. In April 1888, deputies approved the loan, which was also supported by the president and the Senate. The loan limit increased to 720 million francs. However, the subscription to the bonds that had begun ended in failure - of the 254 million francs collected, 31 million were bank costs; in addition, the law required the creation of a reserve fund to guarantee the payment of winnings and the redemption of bonds. Lesseps and his son traveled around the country giving lectures, trying to avoid bankruptcy, promising timely completion of construction and associated financial improvement.

Deputies did not support the bill on preferential debt repayment and the company went bankrupt. On February 4, 1889, the Civil Court officially declared the Panama Company bankrupt and appointed a liquidator. At this point, after eight years of construction, the canal was 40% complete. By issuing bonds, 1.3 billion francs were collected, of which 104 million were paid to banks as commissions and 250 million were paid as interest on bonds and for their redemption. The contractors were paid 450 million francs, but the entire scope of work indicated in the estimate was not completed. During the liquidation process, it turned out that the company had no liquid assets left. The number of investors who lost their investments after the company's bankruptcy was close to 800 thousand people.

In 1892, information leaked to the press about the massive bribery of politicians in order to push through a law authorizing a loan for the Panama Company, which in turn carefully concealed the real state of affairs. 510 members of parliament who received bribes by bank check were charged with accepting bribes.

A trial was held of the leadership of the Panama Company - father and son Lesseps, Gustave Eiffel, several company managers and the former minister of public works. All defendants received various prison sentences, in particular G. Eiffel was sentenced to two years in prison and a fine of 20 thousand francs. Four months later, by decision of the cassation court, the convicts were released. Ferdinand de Lesseps, due to his venerable age and services to his countries, was spared imprisonment. However, the emotional breakdown resulted in mental breakdown and insanity. In December 1894 he died at the age of 89. His son, Charles, lived until 1923 and was able to see the constructed canal in action.

After analyzing the construction of the canal, financiers made the assumption that investors could get their money back if construction of the canal continued. In 1894, a new Panama Canal Company was created in France, which continued work on the canal, but there was no significant progress in construction.

Under US control. 1904-1920

Transportation of selected soil

The New Panama Canal Company, organized in 1894 in France, negotiated with the US government to sell the enterprise. Having reached an agreement, the parties signed an agreement on February 13, 1903. For $40 million, the Company ceded to the US government the right to build the canal and the existing equipment. The Americans did not use private capital, but provided government funding for the construction. The canal design has undergone significant changes - the choice fell on the option of a canal with locks.

The latest advances in the field of medicine were used - by that time it had become clear that mosquitoes and mosquitoes were carriers of yellow fever and malaria, so unprecedented measures were taken on the construction site - in order to destroy insects, swamps were drained and plants were cut down. Sanitary and hygienic preventive measures were taken throughout the entire construction of the canal.

Having started construction, the United States decided to change the conditions under which work was carried out in Colombia. According to the new agreement, a strip of land 16 km wide passed from Colombian jurisdiction to the United States, and the cities of Colon and Panama were declared free ports. In return, Colombia received a one-time payment of $10 million and $250 thousand annually. The treaty was signed on March 18, 1903 and submitted for ratification in the parliaments of both states.

The Colombian Senate did not vote to ratify the treaty, demanding its sovereignty over the canal zone and greater compensation. In turn, the United States supported separatists determined to separate Panama from Colombia, which caused the Panamanian Revolution, which resulted in the formation of the new state of Panama with the capital of the same name.

Manual sampling of soil from the future channel

US President T. Roosevelt ordered warships in Colon and Acapulco to prevent Colombian troops from landing on the shores of Panama. The Panamanian Railway also refused to transport Colombian soldiers. A week after the start of the revolution, the United States recognized the independence of Panama and on November 18, 1903, concluded a new treaty with the young republic. According to the treaty, on February 26, 1904, the territory adjacent to the canal, with an area of ​​1,422 km² and a population of 14,470 people, was annexed by the United States and named the “Panama Canal Zone”.

Colombia did not risk open confrontation with the United States and admitted defeat. Construction of the canal resumed and continued with US forces. During construction under the direction of the United States, 5,600 of the 70,000 workers killed. Construction lasted ten years and cost $380 million.

Culebra notch

The Culebra excavation, in terms of the totality of the efforts made, the people involved and the finances involved, became a unique achievement of the Panama Canal. This work involved the passage of many kilometers between Gamboa, on the Chagres River, through the Continental Divide mountain range, south to Pedro Miguel. The lowest point of the pass was between Golden Hill and Contractors' Hill at an altitude of about 100 meters above sea level.

To destroy the rock, holes were drilled into which explosives were then placed. The crushed soil resulting from the explosions was extracted by steam excavators and loaded onto railcars for transportation to the dump site. The variety of construction equipment was much richer than during the “French” construction. The Americans used steam shovels, unloaders, spreaders, and track movers. The French only had excavators of much less power.

Steam shovel during construction of the Panama Canal

The soil was unloaded according to the following system: the unloader’s three-ton plow was placed on the last platform, and a cable ran from it to a winch located on the first platform. When activated, the winch began to pull the plow towards itself, unloading the train of 20 platforms in 10 minutes. One of these vehicles set a record for unloading, unloading 18 trains with a total length of over 5.5 km and a soil volume of 5,780 m³ in 8 hours. Twenty such unloaders with a staff of 120 people replaced the manual labor of 5,666 people.

Another invention during the construction of the Panama Canal was the spoiler. It was a railcar powered by compressed air, and on both sides there were dumps that changed the height if necessary. In the lower position, they covered several meters on each side of the railway track. As it moved forward, the spreader pushed and leveled the rock left by the unloader. This mechanism replaced 5-6 thousand workers.

The track mover was also invented during the construction of the canal, by the general manager of the construction in 1905-1907, William Bjord. A crane-like mechanism lifted an entire section of the railway, with rails and sleepers, and moved it in the required direction, more than two meters at a time. Considering that the tracks had to be constantly moved, following the progress of work, the importance of this invention could hardly be overestimated. Operated by 12 workers, this machine moved more than 1 km of track in a day, saving the labor of 600 workers.

Volumetric four-sided dump trucks from the company were also used to remove soil. Western and Oliver. Since the heavy clay stuck to the walls, the trolleys were used only to transport stones from the excavation to the Gatun Dam. Millions of cubic meters of excavated soil were used both for the Gatun Dam and to connect the islands of Naos, Perico, Culebra and Flamenco in Panama Bay to build a breakwater. The area between the mainland and Naos Island became particularly difficult - in this area the bottom was soft and tons of stones simply disappeared into it. One day the railway and piles were washed away by the sea, which required their re-construction. As a result, 10 times more material was spent on bulk work in this area than planned.

Start of construction of concrete structures

The excavated soil was used to fill 2 km² of the Pacific Ocean, creating an area for the construction of the city of Balboa and the military fort of Amador. The excavated soil was also used to build mounds in the jungle, the largest of which Tabernilla, contained over 10 million m³. The excavated soil was also used for the Gatun Dam. At the time of construction, the Gatun Dam on the Atlantic Ocean side was the largest dam, and the Gatun Lake formed by it was the largest artificial reservoir on Earth. There are two dams built on the Pacific side - the Miraflores Spillway and, built in the 1930s, the Madden Dam, higher up the Chagres River. After the completion of the Gatun Dam, the Chagres River valley, between Gamboa and Gatun, became Lake Gatun. After the completion of the Culebra Cut, the lake expanded to the Pedro Miguel Locks, across the Continental Divide.

From the beginning of construction to the present day, there remains a danger of earth landslides in the area of ​​the Culebra excavation. The first landslide occurred near Cucarachi on October 4, 1907, collapsing hundreds of cubic meters of earth into the excavation. Until now, the Cucarachi area is considered a particularly landslide-prone area.

In 1908, in addition to excavation work, it was necessary to move the Panama Railway, in connection with the future formation of Lake Gatun. About 64 km of the track were re-laid. Work on laying the railway ended on May 25, 1912, funding for the work amounted to about $9 million.

In 1913, the construction of three giant locks was completed; the walls of the lock chambers reached the height of a 6-story building. More than 1.5 million m³ of concrete were used for each series of locks: Gatun, Pedro Miguel and Miraflores.

On August 15, 1914, the first ship, the Cristobal, passed through the Panama Canal; it took the ship 9 hours to pass through the canal, and the distance saved was 8 thousand km. A landslide in 1914 prevented the canal from officially opening that year, so the official opening of the canal took place on June 12, 1920.

To strengthen the defense of the canal, the US government acquired the islands of Margarita, Perque, Naos, Culebra and Flamenco from Panama. For 25 million dollars, the islands of St. John, St. Croix and St. Thomas were purchased from Denmark, in 1928 the Corn (Corn) Islands were purchased from Nicaragua, and the islands of Roncador and Quitasueño were purchased from Colombia.

Channel modernization. 2009-2016.

A dredging vessel works to widen the Panama Canal in Paraiso, August 31, 2007.

In October 2006, a referendum was held in Panama on the expansion of the Panama Canal. The project received support from 79% of the population. The Chinese business structures that manage the channel had a great influence on the adoption of the plan. After modernization was completed in 2016, the canal was able to accommodate oil tankers with a displacement of more than 130 thousand tons. This made it possible to significantly reduce the distance for delivering Venezuelan oil to China. By that time, Venezuela planned to increase oil supplies to China to 1 million barrels per day.

In July 2008, the tender for the construction of the third group of locks was won by a consortium Grupo Unidos por el Canal, the start of work is scheduled for August 25, 2009. According to the agreement, the cost of the work was to be 3.118 billion dollars, and by mid-2014, work to modernize the canal should be completed.

In October 2008, negotiations were held with global creditors to raise money for the expansion of the Panama Canal. The Japan Bank for International Cooperation expressed its readiness to allocate funds in the amount of $800 million; European Investment Bank - $500 million; Inter-American Development Bank - $400 million; Andean Development Corporation and International Finance Corporation - $300 million each.

First stage. year 2012.

After completion of work. 2017

Scheme

During the modernization, work was carried out to deepen the bottom and wider locks were built. The canal's maximum throughput increased to 18.8 thousand vessels per year, and cargo turnover increased to 1,700 million m³ of various cargoes per year. Vessels with a displacement of up to 170 thousand tons were able to pass through the canal. $5.25 billion was spent on reconstruction of the canal. More than 30 thousand workers were involved in the modernization of the canal, seven people died during the work. The planned profit to the Panama budget from the work of the canal is $2.5 billion per year, by 2025 the profit will increase to $4.3 billion.

The consecration ceremony of the new sluice gates took place on June 26, 2016. The commissioning ceremony for the new channel was attended by representatives from Taiwan, Chile, Costa Rica, Honduras, Paraguay and the Dominican Republic. Panama President Juan Carlos Varela called the event significant for his country.

After the expansion of the channel to replace the standard Panamax, the standard has arrived Neopanamax, which includes ships with a deadweight of up to 120 thousand tons, which is 50% more than standard ships Panamax.

Story

Early 20th century

One of the first ships to transit the Panama Canal

During World War I, the Panama Canal was under heavy security. In 1916, construction of a submarine base began in Coco Solo, near the canal. In 1917, the base could already serve a significant number of submarines. Despite all the fears, German warships did not approach the canal and did not carry out any operations in its area.

Presidential elections were held in Panama in 1908, 1912 and 1918. Each time the elections were held under the supervision of the US military.

In 1917, the United States entered the First World War, following this event, Panama also declared war on Germany, but troops did not take part in the fighting.

In 1918, US troops occupied the city of Panama and the city of Colon “to maintain order,” and in 1918-1920 they occupied the province of Chirique.

In 1921, Costa Rica made territorial claims against Panama and attempted to occupy disputed territories on the Pacific coast under the pretext of an international arbitration decision in 1914. The United States intervened in the situation and Costa Rican army units left Panama.

In 1936, the US government signed a new treaty with Panama, which removed some restrictions on Panama's sovereignty and increased the annual rent for the canal.

The Second World War

By the mid-20th century, it became clear that a submarine base alone was not enough to guard the canal. The Secretary of the Navy appointed a commission to determine the site for a new base in the Virgin Islands.

In May 1941, three R-class submarines from the 32nd Division arrived at the St. Thomas base. In the autumn of the same year, several more boats of the 7th squadron, based in Coco Solo, arrived at the base. Three R-class submarines from the 32nd Boat Division arrived at the base at St. Thomas in May 1941, and in the fall several boats from the 7th Squadron, stationed at Coco Solo, arrived. After the United States entered World War II, all submarine operations around the Virgin Islands were carried out from the base on St. Thomas.

At the very beginning of World War II, several German submarines penetrated the coast of Mosquito Bay, and German submarines also operated in the Caribbean Sea.

In March 1942, boats from St. Thomas carried out reconnaissance and surveillance of the French cruiser Jeanne d'Arc, located in Guadeloupe and aircraft carrier Bearn, off the island of Martinique. The submarines were always in the area of ​​Martinique and Guadeloupe. The French authorities in the West Indies were loyal to the Vichy government and were under suspicion of connections with the Germans. After the establishment of diplomatic relations between the United States and the Vichy government, the latter promised that the ships would not leave their home bases. After this, surveillance of the French ships was stopped.

In the southern Caribbean, submarines from the Coco Solo base operated in the area of ​​the San Andrews Islands, Old Providence Island, and other islands north of Panama. Despite reports of sightings of German submarines, no contact with them was noted during patrols. Following an intelligence report that there were no German boats in the area, patrolling in the area ceased in September 1942.

After the attack of Japanese carrier-based aircraft on Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941, the Americans had to fight a war on two oceans and the question arose of protecting the Panama Canal from the Pacific Ocean. Submarine forces have organized a patrol line stretching 800 miles from Balboa. The boats went to sea for about a month, 22 days of which they spent directly in position. The security was organized in December 1941 and lasted until the end of 1942. During this time, not a single Japanese ship was discovered.

In the spring of 1942, construction began on the Balboa submarine base. Until this point, boats based in Coco Solo had to pass through the canal to conduct patrols in the Pacific Ocean. The establishment of the base would ensure a good supply of boats in the Pacific Ocean and would facilitate the creation of a training center for boat personnel for operations in the Pacific Ocean. Until the end of 1943, the base was never completed, but there was no point in speeding up construction - the situation remained calm. At the end of 1942, submarine operations in the Panama Canal area ceased. In the Caribbean Sea, American anti-submarine ships fought with German submarines. No Japanese submarines appeared from the Pacific Ocean. By this time, air and surface anti-submarine forces were already well organized, so German submarines appeared less and less often off the coast of America.

In August 1945, Japan developed a plan to bomb the Panama Canal, but this plan was never implemented.

Recent history

Panama Canal Locks

In 1955, the governments of Panama and the United States entered into a new treaty regarding the status of the United States in Panama, but the United States retained control of the canal zone.

In November 1959, a Panamanian demonstration was shot by US troops. Panamanians tried to raise the Panama flag in the Panama Canal area.

On January 9, 1964, US military personnel opened fire on a protest demonstration near the borders of the Panama Canal Zone, the event led to an increase in anti-American sentiment in Panama, and mass anti-American protests began among the population of Panama.

On September 7, 1977, an agreement was signed in Washington between Panamanian President Torrijos and US President John Carter The Panama Canal Treaty, according to which the United States must transfer control of the Panama Canal to the Government of Panama on December 31, 1999.

in 1984, in connection with the demand of the government of Panama, the United States closed the “School of the Americas” - a military educational enterprise in the Panama Canal Zone, where military and police personnel were trained for the countries of Central and Latin America.

On December 20, 1989, the US military operation against Panama began. According to official statements by the US government, the goals of the operation were to protect American citizens living in Panama, remove General Noriega and bring him to trial as the leader of the drug mafia. The decision to carry out Operation Right Cause Just Cause) adopted by US President George W. Bush, December 17-18, 1989. The operation began on December 20 at 2 a.m., and by the morning all the main points of resistance were suppressed, in some places there was still resistance, but by the morning of December 25 all the fighting was over.

The Panama Canal was controlled by the United States until December 31, 1999, after which it was transferred to the Panamanian government.

Since December 31, 1999, the canal has been operated by a Panamanian state-owned company - Autoridad del Canal de Panama. Thanks to the Panama Canal, a new standard in shipbuilding emerged - Panamax. This standard designates the maximum size of a vessel that can navigate the canal. The main users of the channel are the USA, China, Japan, South Korea and Chile. The majority of cargo transported is grain; the volume of transportation is lower for oil and petroleum products; the volume of container transportation is dynamically developing.

The cost of passage through the canal is $2.57 per net ton of a loaded vessel and $0.86 per ton of an empty one. Pre-registration is required to pass through the channel, but if desired, during the auction, you can purchase the right of priority passage through the channel. In May 2011 the liner Disney Magic acquired such a right for 331.2 thousand dollars.

Records

In February 2017, a record was set for daily trade turnover - 1.18 million tons of cargo passed through the canal. In December 2016 and January 2017, records were set for monthly trade turnover - 35.4 and 36.1 million tons were transported through the canal, respectively.

On May 24, 2017, a new record was set in the Panama Canal - for the first time in the history of the canal, a container ship passed through it OOCL France, with a cargo capacity of 13,208 TEU. On August 22, 2017, this record was broken by a container ship CMA CGM Theodore Roosevelt, with a capacity of 14,855 TEU.

In 2006, for passage through the Panama Canal of a cruise ship Norwegian Star paid $208,653.16. A week after the completion of the canal reconstruction, in the summer of 2016, for the passage of a Hong Kong-flagged container ship Mol Benefactor 829.4 thousand US dollars were paid.

The smallest fee - $0.36 - was paid by adventurer Richard Halliburton, who swam across the canal through the locks in 1928.

International treaties related to the Panama Canal

1846

Historical map of the Nicaraguan and Panama Canal projects

In 1846, in the capital of New Grenada, Bogotá, a treaty of peace, friendship, navigation and trade was concluded between the United States and New Grenada. This treaty, in Article 35, separately stipulated the construction of an interoceanic transit route through the Isthmus of Panama. According to the treaty, the United States received equal rights with Grenada to operate this route, be it a canal or a railroad. In exchange for the sovereignty of New Grenada over the isthmus, the United States received a guarantee that this route would always be open to them. The American-Colombian Treaty was the first in a series of subsequent conventions in connection with various projects of the inter-oceanic route through Central America and the struggle of the United States with France and Great Britain on this issue. At the same time, Great Britain and France were negotiating with Nicaragua about the construction of such an interoceanic route.

1849

In 1849, a US representative, without having the authority of the government to do so, signed a convention in Guatemala with the government of Nicaragua, according to which the US received the exclusive right to build a transport route between the Pacific and Atlantic oceans. Along this route, the United States could build fortifications and maintain troops, and, if necessary, block the channel for enemy military and merchant ships.

However, fearing complications in relations with Great Britain, this treaty was not ratified in the United States. Great Britain also had plans to build a canal in Nicaragua under its control and took measures to gain control of ports that could become the final destinations of the future canal.

The Convention also contained a clause that similar rights could be granted to other states after concluding similar agreements with Nicaragua.

1850 - 1868

Topographic map of the Panama Canal Zone. 1923

Against the backdrop of growing tensions between the United States and Great Britain, in 1850, at the initiative of the United States, the Clayton-Bulwer Treaty was concluded. The agreement determined the international legal status of the future channel. It excluded the possibility of subordinating the channel to absolute control for each of the contracting states. The agreement provided for equal conditions for using the channel both for citizens of the USA and Great Britain, and for citizens of other states that signed the agreement.

In accordance with the Clayton-Bulwer Treaty, the United States entered into an agreement with Nicaragua in 1867, under which it received the right of free transit, pledging, in turn, to protect the neutrality of the canal and the sovereignty of Nicaragua. A clause of identical content was included in the 1860 trade agreement between Nicaragua and Great Britain.

The main provisions of the Clayton-Bulwer Treaty were repeated in agreements concluded with Nicaragua by Spain in 1850, France in 1859 and Italy in 1868.

1869-1870

In addition to the 1946 US-Columbia Treaty, in 1869 and 1870 the United States attempted to negotiate an agreement with Colombia, which emphasized that only US and Colombian warships could pass through the canal and that enemy ships should not be allowed into the canal.

1878 - 1883

Caricature dedicated to the French selling the channel to the Americans

In 1878, the Colombian government authorized the construction of the canal to a French joint-stock company under the direction of the engineer Lesseps, who had previously designed and built the Suez Canal. The signed concession provided for the neutrality of the canal, the free passage of merchant ships even during war, the unhindered passage of warships flying the US or Colombian flag at any time, and the restriction of the passage of warships of other countries during war. However, the passage of warships of other states could be carried out if an agreement was concluded with Colombia providing for such an action.

In the United States, fears arose that this would increase the influence of states outside mainland America on the Panama Canal, so in 1881, US ambassadors in London, Paris, Berlin and Vienna declared that the neutrality of the Panama Canal was ensured by the United States and any attempts to establish additional guarantees of such neutrality , will be viewed in the US as an unfriendly action.

In response, Britain reminded the US government of the provisions of the Clayton-Bulwer Treaty of 1850. Then, diplomatic correspondence on this issue was carried out between these countries until 1883, but no results were achieved.

1899-1901

In 1888, the French community involved in the construction of the canal went bankrupt and construction ceased. After the war with Spain, the United States returned to the canal issue in 1899. Taking into account the experience of the past war, the United States believed that the channel should be under their absolute control. In 1900, the Anglo-American agreement on the Panama Canal was signed, but it was not ratified by the US Parliament. In 1901, the Gay-Pounsfoot Treaty was concluded, which received approval in the parliaments of the United States and Great Britain.

The signing of this treaty canceled the Clayton-Bulwer Treaty and recognized the right of the United States to build the canal, its operation and management, as well as to ensure security along the entire length of the canal. The right of passage for all merchant and military ships under any flag was also confirmed, but the order for the passage of ships in wartime was not included in the treaty.

1902 - 1904

Panama Canal

Panama Canal- a shipping canal connecting the Gulf of Panama of the Pacific Ocean with the Caribbean Sea and the Atlantic Ocean, located on the Isthmus of Panama in the territory of the state of Panama.

Length - 81.6 km, including 65.2 km on land and 16.4 km along the bottom of the Panama and Limon bays (for the passage of ships to deep water), total width - 150 meters (the width of the lock chambers is 33 meters), depth - 12 meters. Officially opened on June 12, 1920.

Passage of ships through lock chambers. The gateways have two lanes, each 33.5 m wide. Lock chamber length 305 m

Although the canal officially opened in 1920, the first ship to pass through was the USS Ancona on August 15, 1914.

The construction of the Panama Canal was one of the largest and most complex construction projects undertaken by mankind. The Panama Canal had an invaluable influence on the development of shipping and the economy as a whole in the Western Hemisphere and throughout the world, which led to its extremely high geopolitical significance. Thanks to the Panama Canal, the sea route from New York to San Francisco was reduced from 22.5 thousand km to 9.5 thousand km.

The incredible complexity and scale of the project for that time is captured in a photo from 1912

The sea route from New York to San Francisco was reduced from 22.5 thousand km to 9.5 thousand km

The canal allows vessels of all types to pass through, from private yachts to huge tankers and container ships. The maximum size of a ship that can transit the Panama Canal has become a de facto standard in shipbuilding, called Panamax.

The Panamax standard assumes maximum vessel dimensions of 965 feet (294.13 m) long, 106 feet (32.31 m) beam, and 39.5 feet (12.04 m) loading depth.

Vessels are guided through the Panama Canal by the Panama Canal Pilot Service. The average time for a vessel to pass through the canal is 9 hours, the minimum is 4 hours 10 minutes. Maximum throughput is 48 vessels per day. Every year, about 14 thousand ships carrying about 280 million tons of cargo pass through the canal structures. (5% of global ocean freight). The canal is overloaded, so the queue to pass through it is sold at auction. The total fee for a vessel's passage through the canal can reach $400,000. By 2002, more than 800 thousand vessels had already used the canal’s services.

In December 2010, the canal was closed to ships for the first time in 95 years due to bad weather and rising water levels as a result of incessant rainfall.

In July 2014, the final route of the Nicaraguan Canal was announced, corresponding in width and depth to the parameters of modern ships and designed to become an alternative to the Panama Canal.

Proposed Nicaraguan Canal routes. The canal under construction will run along the green line