Ancient cities of Greece. City-states in ancient Greece The most famous city of ancient Greece
Athens
Athens is the capital of the Greek state, one of the oldest cities in the world, which received its name from the goddess of knowledge and wisdom. For the entire civilized world, this city is a symbol personifying freedom, democracy and art. In the center of the city there is the “pearl” of Greece - the Acropolis with its architectural masterpiece the Parthenon and Mount Lykabettos with the picturesque church of St. George. The Temple of the Virgin Athena, the patroness of the city, majestically rises above the city and is clearly visible from any point. The Theater of Dionysus, located on the southern slope of the Acropolis, was part of the Sanctuary of Dionysus, now partially restored, and the site of the Athens Festival. Areopagus, a low hill northwest of the Acropolis, the leveled area on top of which served as the meeting place for the Council of Elders, the highest judicial body of the ancient Athenian state. No less important monuments of Athens are Keramikos, where the ashes of famous Athenians rest. Diogenes' Lantern, Tower of the Winds, Hadrian's Arch - this is a small list of what you can see in Athens. The surrounding area of the most ancient capital of Europe is also rich in attractions. The burial mound called Marathon is home to a museum in honor of the soldiers who died at the Battle of Marathon in 490 BC. At Cape Sounion you can see the Temple of Poseidon and the ruins of the Temple of Athena. Modern Athens lives a dynamic, rich life. This is a noisy and temperamental city, like its inhabitants. The contrasts of the Greek capital only emphasize its charm. The crowds in the center contrast with the almost rustic appearance of the suburbs. From three to four o'clock in the afternoon the city falls asleep - for the Greeks, the afternoon siesta is as sacred as a weekend trip to visit relatives in the village. Athens comes to life at night - the halls of theaters and the Palace of Music are filled. Everywhere you go - the trendy discotheques in Kolonaki, the frenetic bistros in Exarchi, the pubs and taverns in Pira - there is dancing and partying everywhere. The capital of Greece is of interest not only to history buffs and experts. A short distance from the city is a strip of luxurious beaches known as the “Athenian Riviera”. Athens is a city of amazing fate, which has experienced periods of prosperity and decline, greatness and humiliation throughout its history.
Groups of Indo-Europeans, which were the main core of the formation of the Greek people, during the Middle Helladic era mixed with the pre-Greek population of continental Greece in ethnic and linguistic terms. In linguistic terms, the result of this process was a series of rapid changes that significantly changed the phonetic structure of the language (primarily consonants), and also replaced a very significant number of ancient Indo-European words with vocabulary borrowed from the Aegean substrate. As a result, in the second half of the 2nd millennium BC. e. The ancient Greek language arose, preserving the Indo-European grammatical structure, but its vocabulary was already significantly different from the Indo-European proto-language base.
The new arrivals were also heavily influenced by the culture of the conquered pre-Greek population. Thus, when in the 16th century. BC e. mainland Greece of the era of the Mycenaean shaft tombs again becomes at the head of the development of the Aegean civilization, the Greek newcomers already exercise control over almost the entire Hellenic region, but their own culture is still only halfway to a complete synthesis, which the ancient Indo-Europeans should eventually enter into on the territory of the Aegean, original Helladic and specific Cretan-Minoan elements.
The abundance of treasures discovered in the Mycenaean shaft tombs provides interesting evidence reflecting the structure and economic level of early Mycenaean society. It is proof of the rapid accumulation of property that took place in the political centers of individual regions, and at the same time evidence of far-reaching social differentiation. The representatives of the ruling class buried in the shaft tombs were undoubtedly famous warriors, as evidenced by the valuable weapons discovered in the tombs, and their remains are characterized by anthropological features that differ from the more ancient Mediterranean population (powerful physique, more than 180 cm in height). At their disposal were experienced artisans of various professions. This is evidenced by the finds of objects of material culture, confirming the existence of significant differentiation of crafts. Economic ties with other countries are also indicative, especially with Crete and the Asia Minor coast, as well as with the Middle East, the cultural world of ancient Italy, and even with Western and Central Europe. A number of finds already indicate a significant degree of synthesis of local and foreign artistic techniques, primarily the interaction of elements of the culture of the mainland with the influence of the refined culture of Minoan Crete.
The appearance of shaft graves in the 16th century. BC e. marks the entry of the Mycenaean civilization onto the main path of development of the history of world culture, but this was only the beginning of the unprecedented rise of this civilization. Such a rapid accumulation of treasures in shaft tombs seems to a number of researchers to be so unexpected and amazing in comparison with the modest Middle Helladic past that many are inclined to talk about the appearance of these treasures in the Aegean from somewhere outside.
For example, some scholars believe that around 1600 BC. e. there could have been a campaign of mainland Achaean warriors to Crete, from where they returned home with rich booty. However, no traces of an enemy invasion dating back to that time were found on Crete. At the same time, the growth of the economic potential of the Mycenaeans continues in the subsequent period, and so intensely that it cannot be explained as a consequence of robbery alone, even on a large scale.
Other researchers, in turn, believe that some objects from the shaft tombs reveal certain features pointing to Egypt, and try to connect the ancient Greek legend about the arrival of Danaus in Argolis from North Africa with the established fact that it was in the 17th century. BC e. Egypt was experiencing serious political upheavals. At the end of the 18th century. BC e. From the Caucasus and the mountains of Armenia, a destructive wave of warlike Semitic peoples moved across the entire Middle East, using military equipment unknown until then - horse-drawn war chariots. One part of them crushed the military power of Babylon, and the other - the so-called Hyksos - penetrated at the turn of the 18th and 17th centuries. BC e. into the Nile Delta and conquered most of Egypt for more than a century. The similarity of dates here is truly striking: the end of Hyksos rule in Egypt falls around 1560 BC. e., the arrival of Danaus in Argolis “Parian Marble” dates back to 1510 BC. e., and the richest tombs of burial circle A in Mycenae date back to 1550-1500. BC e. All this led to the hypothesis that a detachment of Mycenaean warriors took part in the last battles with the Hyksos in Egypt, was generously rewarded for their service and returned home along with a group of Egyptian comrades.
This hypothesis is very attractive and quite ingenious, but it does not have reliable confirmation by material culture data. On the contrary, as a result of a detailed analysis of the Egyptian characteristics of objects from the shaft tombs, it was established that we are undoubtedly talking about things that clearly also have features inherent in Minoan objects, so that none of them suggests the need for the existence of direct Egyptian-Mycenaean contacts. The mediating role of Crete played a decisive role in the appearance and subsequent fate of these objects on the mainland. The same can be said about a number of other finds made in shaft tombs. Therefore, at present, most researchers are inclined to believe that the appearance of the treasures of the shaft tombs was the result of the successful economic policy of the local Mycenaean rulers.
However, all this does not at all exclude the possibility of the existence of direct connections with Egypt and, in general, with the entire Middle East, since it was by the time around the middle of the 2nd millennium BC. e. oral tradition coincides with the appearance of a number of other central figures of the early layer of Greek mythology, associated in their origin with the East. In addition to Danaus, these were, in particular, Cadmus and Pelops. And this is not a mere coincidence, but a real reflection of the ancient ties that existed between the Aegean and the Middle East in the 17th-16th centuries. BC e. It also seems that these legendary figures could be associated with the appearance of certain material values in the Aegean. In all likelihood, they were the bearers of various knowledge and experience of an organizational, economic and technical nature, and when over time they really began to play that prominent role in political life that Greek mythology attributes to them, they undoubtedly achieved much faster and, most importantly, a more stable accumulation of material values in the early centers of Mycenaean culture than could be achieved through just one military campaign.
Tendencies towards interaction between Helladic and Minoan cultures, which can already be traced in finds from the shaft tombs of Mycenae, especially intensified in the second Late Helladic period (PE II), covering almost the entire 15th century BC. e. This was a historical stage characterized, unfortunately, by the lack of more detailed information about the construction of palaces and settlements of that time, since the archaeological layers of this period largely disappeared without a trace under later layers. It is possible that the existence of some important structures from an economic point of view, such as, in particular, the irrigation systems of Boeotia and Argolid, dates back to this time. Again, we are quite well informed about burial methods. Domed tombs, found chiefly in the western Peloponnese in the previous century, also begin to appear in the region of Mycenae, and although most of them have been plundered, their architectural splendor indicates the wealth and noble origin of the rulers and other representatives of the ruling class of the time.
The period of PE II is usually divided into two stages. At the beginning of the century, Crete continued to be an important economic and cultural factor in the Aegean, from where, even at this time, many artistic products were exported to the mainland. Likewise, continental ceramics continue to be strongly influenced by the naturalistic style of Crete of the PM II B period, which is characterized by an appeal to marine themes.
However, this influence is already one of the latest in a long series of phenomena that testify to the outstanding contribution of Cretan civilization to the treasury of Hellenic culture. A few decades later, a wave of strong earthquakes swept through the entire southern part of the Aegean. The destruction they caused culminated in a catastrophic eruption on the island of Thera around 1470 BC. e., as a result of which the island split, and its remains were covered with a multi-meter layer of lava. This eruption was so powerful that, having inflicted a mortal wound on the centuries-old Minoan civilization that had existed on Crete since the end of the Neolithic and subjected the remaining population of the island to unexpected hardships, its consequences ultimately made Crete politically and economically dependent on the Mycenaean Achaeans.
However, Crete was not the only island affected by the eruption of the Fersky volcano. In particular, the destruction of the recently discovered city near Agia Irini on Keos dates from the same chronological period. It remains unknown what language the local population spoke - Minoan (ancient Cretan) or Mycenaean (Greek).
It goes without saying that the Thera-Cretan catastrophe was the reason for the disappearance of Cretan influence on the mainland. However, fortunately, these destructions occurred at a time when the Mycenaean culture of the mainland Achaeans was already capable of independent life, and therefore the subsequent decades of the 15th century. BC e. were the period when the final fusion of Minoan and Helladic elements took place in the Aegean in the final Mycenaean synthesis. This applies not only to ceramics, but also to other products of applied art.
Establishing the fact of the disastrous impact of the eruption of the Thera volcano on Cretan civilization allows us today to also form a definite idea of how the Achaeans took possession of Knossos at that time. Contrary to the previously existing point of view, the Achaeans probably appeared here not as conquerors who conquered the Cretan cities, and not as a squad accompanying the Achaean prince to the heir to the Knossos throne, but as a naval reconnaissance expedition - in order to find out the possibility of settlement on Crete, which had been subjected to severe consequences of the Fersky eruption. And since Knossos largely escaped destruction in the literal sense of the word and was only covered with ashes, the Achaeans quickly turned it into the political center of their power, but at the same time they, of course, relied on the support of the local population that had survived the disaster. Knossos of this time is characterized by close adherence to more ancient Cretan traditions and at the same time the influence of a wide variety of influences coming from the mainland.
It seems that, along with Knossos, some other Cretan centers also survived the Thera-Cretan catastrophe, which continued to remain dependent on the central authority of Knossos during the rule of the Achaeans. This conclusion follows primarily from the analysis of toponymic data contained in the texts on the Knossos tablets, which include such names as Amnis, Tullis (later Tyliss) in the central part of northern Crete, Festus in the south of the island, Lukt (later Litt) in the eastern part, Lato further to the east, two places in the extreme east (wa-to = later Paleokastro?, o-du-ro-we = 3akros?) and Koudonia in the west of the island (later Kydonia, modern Chania). And the fact noted above is that agricultural products in these and other areas of Crete around 1380 BC. e. again achieved a significant rise, clearly indicating the overcoming of the economic stagnation caused by the volcanic eruption on Fera that occurred a little less than a century earlier. Thus, it is likely that some administrative centers of Crete again rose from ruins, but were already under the dominion of the Achaean newcomers, who by that time had established their dominance on the island.
This was the appearance of Crete during the periods of PM II (about 1470-1400 BC) and PM III A (about 1400-1380 BC). At this time, the throne room of the Knossos Palace received its currently known appearance, tombs of warriors with Mycenaean weapons appeared near Knossos, and palace-style pottery was made in Knossos itself, revealing significant similarities with the pottery of mainland Greece.
But soon, around 1380 BC. e. The final destruction of this newly rebuilt Knossos Palace also occurs. Researchers have never agreed on how this happened. Was this the result of an earthquake, a revolt of the Cretans against the Achaeans, or an attack by the mainland Achaeans on their Knossos tribesmen who had settled in Crete two or three generations earlier? Oddly enough, some scientists today have again returned to the already traditional explanation of the disasters that occurred in Crete by an earthquake. The theory of internal conflicts is now rejected by most researchers, since it seems incredible that their consequences could affect Crete to such an extent that the victorious side was not able to rebuild at least some of the destroyed centers. In addition, objects of material culture of small forms were made in Crete even later, and at approximately the same level as before the destruction of the palaces.
Recently, scientists are again beginning to return to the idea of an invasion of the mainland Achaeans, but only as a additional reason the final decline of Knossos. At first glance, this idea is quite absurd. If Crete had been under the rule of the Achaeans for several decades, then why did the Achaeans themselves suddenly need to destroy it? However, we should not forget that in the second half of the 15th century. BC e. Crete was not a territory politically dependent on the mainland Achaeans, but an independent state, to one degree or another a direct successor of the ancient Minoan traditions. Despite the significant reduction in the export of its goods, Crete at this time continued to remain a serious trading competitor of continental Greece in the Mediterranean markets, and this could not suit the mainland Achaeans. Given these circumstances, the sudden invasion of Knossos by the latter was quite logical. But it is not yet possible to prove this.
Therefore, the only seemingly acceptable solution is to connect the events described above with the hypothesis of an earthquake. If around 1380 BC. e. a natural disaster actually occurred in Crete and news reached Mycenae that Knossos (and possibly other Cretan settlements) had been reduced to ruins; it is unlikely that the mainland Achaeans were interested in their restoration. Most likely, the Achaeans would have done everything possible to prevent this and eliminate such a dangerous rival as Crete from economic life, even if its ruling class already spoke Greek.
However, even after this, Crete continued to remain part of the Aegean world; he continued, although to a lesser extent, to take part in the economic and cultural life of the Aegean. Of course, a part of the Achaean population remained on Crete, speaking Greek and. maintaining ties with his native continent. We have already noted above that even after the fall of Knossos, Linear B continued to be used on Crete for quite a long time, as is clear from a number of Cretan texts dating chronologically from the destruction of Knossos to the end of the 13th century. BC e. This is evidenced primarily by inscriptions on fragments of vessels from Chania in western Crete and the nearby village of Mameluko, as well as one document from Knossos. This also includes the above-mentioned inscriptions on fragments of vessels found in layers of the late 13th century. BC e. in Thebes, regarding which it is generally accepted that they were made in the east of Crete.
Currently, it is becoming more and more obvious that the XIV-XIII centuries. BC e. were not a time of complete political isolation of Crete from other regions of the Aegean, but a historical period during which the Achaean element continued to play a certain role. When, somewhat later - at the end of the 2nd millennium BC. e. – Greek Dorians appeared on Crete, and over the course of several centuries they managed to significantly “doranize” Crete; their dialect still retained some features of the ancient Achaean dialect. And the most ancient, pre-Greek element was not completely assimilated in Crete for quite some time. Back in the middle of the 1st millennium BC. e. inscriptions from East Cretan Pressos record a completely incomprehensible local language, which has nothing in common with Greek and produces a very unusual impression, primarily due to the excess of the “r” sound.
But let's leave Crete and return again to mainland Greece around 1400 BC. e. The dominance of Knossos taught the Achaeans a lot. First of all, they learned how to organize a palace management system based on written registration of individual economic processes. It is quite possible that the Linear B script used in Mycenaean Greece originated somewhere in the 16th century. BC e. and that on the mainland it was already widespread at that time; however, there is no doubt that the Mycenaeans' perfect mastery of writing was facilitated by more than fifty years of practice in maintaining administrative documentation directly at Knossos.
During the reign of the Achaeans in Knossos, their material culture experienced an equally strong influence. Knossos, the city that the whole Aegean looked upon as the center of Aegean enlightenment, fell into the hands of the Achaeans, and with it all the experience of the Cretans, accumulated here for centuries thanks to the existence of rich eastern and local traditions.
It is quite natural that in mainland Greece at the beginning of the second half of the 15th century. BC e. The following situation has arisen. The objects manufactured here now reach such a high level that, in essence, they are not inferior to Cretan samples. In the decorative arts, the Achaeans continued to be able epigones rather than original masters, but here too, thanks to the combination of mainland traditions with various Minoan influences, they were able to achieve an admirable high level of artistic skill. At the same time, the Cretan influence was perceived not without creative rethinking, and the Achaean masters did not abandon their own traditions inherited from their ancestors, both in practical and aesthetic terms. Thus, in the architecture of dwellings, the main element continues to be the megaron, and among the forms of funeral structures, the domed tomb and its simplified version, the chamber tomb, continue to hold the leading place.
As for trade contacts, in the 15th century. BC e. The ties established in earlier times continue to develop and deepen, and by the end of the century, Achaean settlers settled in a number of areas of the Aegean, which had hitherto been the sphere of Cretan influence (Miletus on the coast of Asia Minor, the island of Rhodes, etc.).
By the 15th century or at the latest by the beginning of the 14th century. BC e. probably also include events that are reflected in a number of legends from the most ancient layer of Greek mythology, i.e. earlier than the “Trojan” layer, but at the same time somewhat later than the one to which the very ancient myths about Danaus, Cadmus and Pelops belonged. These include myths about the Perseids - the predecessors of the Atrides on the throne of Mycenae, about Bellerophon - the ancestor of the Argive king Diomedes, about Neleus - the father of Nestor and about some great joint achievements of the heroes of Greek mythology, also more ancient than the Trojan War, which were the campaign of the Argonauts for the golden fleece or the hunt for the Calydonian boar. The temporal relationship between fathers and sons indicated in these legends in a number of cases should be understood not literally, but as the relationship between ancestors and descendants, between whom there are a number of insignificant generations that have not left a trace in mythology. Thus, the older generations of the “fathers” probably seemed to the heroes of the Trojan War to be as semi-mythical as the Achaean warriors at Troy seemed to Homer’s contemporaries.
Decline of Knossos around 1380 BC e. had a number of other consequences. Although Knossos had already become Achaean about 70 years before this date, the ancient Cretan traditions persisted here later and even continued to exert a significant influence on mainland Greece. After the destruction of Knossos, the Cretan influence was almost not noticeable, and Hellenic culture began to develop along its own path, in which the traditional elements of the Minoan civilization appeared in a completely transformed form.
The tendency towards schematization, which can be traced in Mycenaean art already in the previous period, intensifies even more in the 14th-13th centuries. (PE III A-B). The images, which owe their origin to the naturalism that once existed in Crete, become as if they were devoid of life. Thus, octopuses, represented on Cretan vases of the maritime style of the period PM I B, acquire such a schematic form in Mycenaean ceramics that it is possible to see octopuses here only if you have a rich imagination. But, on the other hand, around the middle of the 14th century. BC e. we unexpectedly encounter images of humans and animals on Mycenaean vessels. This, of course, testifies to the influence of the fresco paintings of Mycenaean palaces, on which hunting and military scenes were one of the most favorite decorative motifs of that time. It is necessary, however, to immediately note that some frescoes, especially from the last period of the existence of Mycenaean palaces, are distinguished by a very low level of technical execution (extreme schematization or, conversely, excessive pedantry in the depiction of details, as well as the use of unnatural colors). On the contrary, some specific motifs of fresco paintings, such as the continuous frieze of military scenes in Mycenae or the picture of men feasting at tables and the image of a singer in Pylos, introduce us to an atmosphere surprisingly close to the world of Homeric poems. This is no longer just the artist’s play with traditional Cretan motifs, which takes place, for example, in the depiction of cult female processions, but an attempt to really reflect the life of the ruling class of Mycenaean society. Looking at these frescoes, it is not difficult to imagine how Odysseus’ son Telemachus enters the megaron of the Pylos Palace and sits down at the banquet table with Nestor and his entourage (“Odyssey”, III.386-396).
Unlike the previous period, XIV and XIII centuries BC. e. provide us with a number of very detailed information about Mycenaean architecture. We are talking about a historical period, at the end of which Mycenaean settlements were mostly already in ruins and were restored only in rare cases, and even then to a limited extent. However, it is quite difficult to determine exactly when one or another of the parts of palaces and residences that have survived to this day was built, since in palace complexes, as a rule, it is quite difficult to distinguish between various reconstructions that were carried out repeatedly. So, during the XIV-XIII centuries. BC e. At least three reconstructions were carried out in Mycenae. In the XIV century. BC e. the palace in Mycenae, until that time virtually unfortified, was surrounded by powerful walls that reached all the way to burial circle A, which, however, remained outside the fortifications. In the middle of the 13th century. BC e. the fortification system was expanded towards the southwest; Grave circle A was also included in the territory of the fortress, which after reconstruction acquired its currently known form; The Lion Gate was also built at the same time. At the end of the 13th century. BC e. The territory of the fortress is expanded due to the construction of the north-eastern projection of the walls, which protected access to the water tank. In Tiryns, cyclopean walls were built only in the 14th-13th centuries. BC e. (also carried out in three stages). Powerful walls were erected at the same time in other Mycenaean settlements (Argos, Dendra, Athens, Gla, etc.). In the second half of the 13th century. BC e. Even a defensive wall was being built on the Isthmus of Corinth, which was supposed to cover the interior of the Peloponnese from attack from the sea. Regarding burial structures, we only note that in the 13th century. BC e. they reach their peak in the appearance of domed tombs of exquisite architecture such as the “Treasury of Atreus” at Mycenae.
About who owned these powerful fortresses and who found his last peace in the magnificent tombs nearby, we can only speculate based on Greek mythology. If the mythological legends about the rulers of the Mycenaean throne are taken literally, then somewhere during this period a change of dynasties took place in Mycenae: the power of the Perseids was inherited by the bloodthirsty Pelopids. In Messinia around 1300 BC. e. on the site of an earlier settlement a palace appeared, the power in which belonged to the Neleid family from Thessaly.
Greek mythology also reports that the era we are considering in itself required the existence of powerful fortresses with fortified approaches. During the previous several centuries of economic growth, their owners managed to accumulate a lot of treasures: they had something to hide behind the powerful walls of their palaces. But on the other hand, the ghost of the same wealth located in the neighbor’s palace pushed them onto the path of military rivalry. Obviously, this is exactly how the intra-Achaean internecine conflict arose, which became the reason for the destruction of the powerful city of Central Greece - the seven-gate Thebes. As we have already mentioned, at the heart of these events was a dispute over power over Thebes between the sons of Oedipus, Eteocles and Polyneices. Since the brothers failed to comply with the original agreement on the alternating change of power, Thebes became the target of two military campaigns. First, the troops of seven leaders, gathered by the Argive king Adrastus, opposed them. However, Thebes repelled this attack, and all seven enemy leaders died in battle. The city was captured and destroyed only a generation later, when the sons of the dead leaders marched against it under the leadership of Adrastus' grandson Diomedes, who later gained fame as one of the heroes of the Trojan War. All this suggests that the destruction of Thebes was the work of that generation of Achaean heroes who lived during the Trojan War. If this war took place around 1220-1210. BC e., which we will discuss below, the fall of Thebes occurs approximately in the third quarter of the 13th century. BC e., and the unsuccessful campaign of seven leaders - in the second quarter of the same century.
The conclusion is that the destruction of Thebes occurs around 1230 BC. e., until recently the results of archaeological research were confirmed. However, today most of them believe that the Theban Palace of the Bronze Age, the so-called Cadmea, was destroyed at the very end of the 13th century. BC e. This temporal inconsistency can be eliminated either by moving the date of the Trojan War to 1190-1180. BC e. (ancient dating of Eratosthenes), or by revising the chronology of Thebes (appropriately highlighting several stages of destruction here). But no matter how the problem of chronology is solved, there is no doubt that political reasons lay behind the destruction of Thebes. If four of the seven leaders of the first anti-Theban coalition were from Argolis - and Argolis had been the center of Hellenic culture since the Early Bronze Age - then the talk, undoubtedly, was about razing Thebes, which was a dangerous competitor, to the ground. The only strange thing is that in the legend there is no mention of Mycenae, and Argos is named as the inspirer of the campaign. But this contradiction is explained by the above-mentioned conditions of the post-Mycenaean time, when Mycenae was already in ruins, and Argos was a powerful center with which not only Argolis, but the entire Peloponnese was forced to reckon.
But what is most worthy of attention and at the same time especially characteristic of the PM III AB period is the extremely intensive trade expansion of the Mycenaeans, coming from mainland Greece to various extra-Helladic areas. Geographically, the Mycenaean world is no longer limited to mainland Greece alone, but includes almost the entire Aegean and a number of other areas of the Mediterranean. The entire Mycenaean world in the broad sense of the word is characterized by a high level of standardization of material culture, which was reflected, in particular, in a significant degree of unification of Mycenaean ceramics, which are found in many areas of the Mediterranean - from Italy to Syria and Egypt. A certain exception to this unification is represented only by the products of two outlying regions - Rhodes and Cyprus, as well as Southern Italy, where independent trading and production centers with pottery workshops, and in some cases with a permanent Achaean population, were formed. During the XIV-XIII centuries. BC e. Rhodes becomes a completely Achaean island and, together with the even more distant Cyprus (where, apparently, as early as the 14th century BC, Mycenaean trading posts arose, and soon after that, centers for the production of ceramics) played a prominent role in the spread of the highly valued Helladic- Levantine pottery on the eastern Mediterranean coast. At the same time, in the west, the Mycenaean settlement in Scoglio del Tonno in the vicinity of ancient Tarentum reached its peak, where Mycenaean ceramics of the Rhodian type were produced.
In the XIV-XIII centuries. BC e. a continuous flow of high-quality ceramic products from mainland Greece and other centers of Mycenaean pottery production is sent to all areas of the Eastern and Central Mediterranean. The same period dates back to the intensive development of Mycenaean connections with the regions located in the west of the Asia Minor coast, and the establishment of contacts with the powerful Hittite power in the center of Asia Minor.
As mentioned above, E. Forrer established in the Hittite texts from Boğazköy a number of parallels between Hittite proper names and similar Greek proper names. The first place in this series is occupied by the name Ahkhiyava(or Ahichia), comparable to the Greek Achaivia and later Achaia - “Land of the Achaeans”. According to the texts, the first Hittite king to come into contact with Ahhiyawa was Supiluliuma I (circa 1370-1330 BC). This ruler sent some person (perhaps even his own wife) to Ahkhiyava, which is interpreted as evidence of ties that already existed by that time between the two states. One should also evaluate the fact that in a difficult moment for him, the Hittite ruler Mursili II (about 1329-1300 BC) appealed to the help of “the god Ahhiyawa and the god of the country Lazpash” and especially that at the Hittite court together with his heir Muwatalli (about 1300-1280 BC), two noble Akhhiyawa youths were raised, one of whom even came from the royal family of Akhhiyawa, and the second was a certain Tavagalawa.
It is the second of these persons that is mentioned in Muwatalli’s lengthy message addressed to the king of Ahhiyawa, which, although only partially preserved, clearly indicates the deterioration of Hittite-Akhhiyawa relations. The army of Tavagalawa and the warriors of the Hittite king allegedly simultaneously entered the Lukka region due to the fact that the local population asked for help first to Tavagalawa, and then to the Hittite king. Matters came to a head of diplomatic friction, which resulted in a military conflict, which ended in victory for the Hittites. Then a Hittite subject, a certain Piyamaratus, appears on the scene, who took 7 thousand prisoners from the Hittite king and went with them to the city of Milavanda, which was obviously under the rule of King Ahhiyawa. The Hittite king demanded from King Ahhiyawa the extradition of Piyamaratus, but, having received no answer, he entered Milavanda with his army. However, there he found neither Piyamaratus, who had sailed from Milawanda by that time, nor Tavagalawa. Therefore, at the end of his message, Muwatalji insists that the king of Ahhiyawa should not allow Piyamaratus to use the territory of Ahhiyawa as a base for the fight against the Hittites, and in this regard mentions some kind of previous conflict related to the region of Wilusa, which was supposedly settled bilateral agreement.
The message was composed in an unusually peaceful tone, obviously caused by the fact that the residence of King Ahhiyawa was beyond the reach of the Hittite troops, i.e. was separated by sea from Milavanda, the possession of Akhhiyawa in the territory of Asia Minor. It is unlikely that at that time there was a region in Asia Minor that could ignore the power of the Hittites with impunity, as the king of Ahhiyawa did, sheltering both Piyamaratus and Tavagalawa. As for the location of Milavanda, at present researchers completely agree with E. Forrer, who identifies Milavanda (or Milavatu) with Miletus, a major Greek center on the western coast of Asia Minor (the more ancient Greek form of the name “Miletus” was Milvat, and the existence of the Mycenaean settlements on the territory of Miletus archaeologically date back to the 15th century BC). The possibility of Ahhiyawa's penetration into the depths of Asia Minor is evidenced by the unequivocal indication of the Hittite king that during the battles with Tavagalawa he refrained from destroying the fortress of Atria.
However, on the other hand, it is possible that the size of Akhhiyawa’s possessions in Asia Minor was different at one time or another. This conclusion can be reached on the basis of the message of the Hittite king Hattusili III (about 1275-1250 BC), addressed to Milawatu, from which it follows that the ruler of this city was dependent on the central Hittite power. Whether Milavanda was at that time identical with Milavata or not, this city, one way or another, no longer belonged to the king of Ahhiyawa. Also worthy of mention is a Hittite document from the time of Hattusili III, which talks about gifts from King Ahhiyawa to the Hittite king.
The question of the development of Hittite-Akhhiyav relations, especially during the reign of the next Hittite king, Tudhalia IV (about 1250-1220 BC), is not clear enough. A fragmentary text dates back to this time, which says that the population of the land near the Sekha River took up arms against the Hittites and that in connection with this, the king of Akhhiyawa personally visited the territory of Asia Minor, although it is difficult to say under what circumstances, as well as in whose side he spoke. The document ends with a message about the defeat of the Hittite opponents. It seems that these actions of the Hittites were closely connected with the hostile actions of the broad anti-Hittite coalition led by the region of Ashshuv, as we read about in another text that apparently dates back to the same time. It gives a list of the names of twenty-two regions that opposed the Hittites. The first of these is named Lucca (usually identified with later Lycia in the southwest of Asia Minor), in eighth place comes Carkisha (which is seen as Caria located further to the northwest), and the penultimate and last places are occupied by Vilusia and Taruisa. If these twenty-two regions are listed, as many scholars believe, in the direction from south to north, then Taruisa and Vilusia should have been located in the extreme northwest of Asia Minor, i.e. exactly where Troy or [V]ilion was located, the Greek toponymic names of which are associated with the Hittite forms Taruis and Vilus[y]ya. The text goes on to talk about the defeat of the mentioned coalition and the destruction of the center of the uprising of Ashshuwa - the region that, according to E. Forrer, gave the name to the entire continent, known in early Greek in the form Asvia, and later Asia (Asia). However, we do not have any reliable information regarding the position that Akhhiyava adhered to during this conflict.
Another interesting document from the time of Tudhalia IV, containing part of the text of the agreement between Tudhalia and the king of the Amurru region (Northern Syria), reports a ban on trade between Amurru and Assyria, which was then in hostile relations with the Hittites, as well as a ban on ships from Ahhiyawa to trade with Assyria . Thus, this document confirms that Akhhiyava was located by the sea and that maritime trade played an important role in its economy. The fact that at that time (or shortly after) the relations between the Hittites and Akhhiyawa were subjected to some serious tests is evidenced by one curious circumstance in the agreement. It talks about kings who were recognized as having dignity equal to that of the Hittite king. And if initially in this part of the agreement the kings of Egypt, Babylonia, Assyria and Akhhiyawa were listed in turn, then the mention of the king of Akhhiyawa was erased.
The last Hittite document related to Ahhiyawa is the message of Arnuwanda IV (circa 1220-1200 BC to a certain Madduwatta. Madduwatta was once expelled from his land by Attarissia - “a man from the country of Ahhiyawa”, fled to the Hittite king Tudhalia IV and received from him power over the region of Tsipasla in the neighborhood of Arzawa (somewhere in the southern part of Asia Minor). Attarisya pursued him there too, but the Hittite king again came to the aid of Madduwatta and returned his lands to him. However, later, already during his reign Arnuwanda, Madduwatta marched with his old enemy Attarissia against the Hittites and jointly launched an attack on the country of Alashiya (the latter is usually identified with Cyprus). Arnuwanda regarded this as an action hostile to the Hittites, but Madduwatta allegedly objected that he did not know that Alashiya is included in the sphere of interests of the Hittite state.
Thus, from our story about Akhhiyawa it follows that Hittite-Akhhiyawa relations, especially at the initial stage, were undoubtedly distinguished by the features of diplomatic good neighborliness, confirmed in a number of cases by close ties between representatives of the ruling dynasties, although from time to time it was disrupted by various frictions. The source of tension was primarily the private initiative (and probably only tacitly supported by the Akhhiyav rulers) attempts by various Akhhiyav adventurers to penetrate into the depths of Asia Minor and further to the east and southeast. The general tendency of the Hittites to maintain friendly relations in official politics can be explained by the difference in the territorial location of the two states: the power of the Hittites extended mainly to the internal regions of Asia Minor, while the main territory of the Akhhiyav power was located outside its borders.
A more specific determination of the location of Akhkhiyava remains impossible for us. It seems that Cyprus should be excluded from the list of possible places, since in the Hittite texts it appears under the name of Alashiya. Of the Aegean islands, only Rhodes deserves attention. It is there that a significant part of scientists place Akhkhiyava. However, some researchers still equate, following E. Forrer, Akhhiyava and Mycenaean Greece as a whole, emphasizing that neither Cyprus nor Rhodes in the layers of the XIV-XIII centuries. BC e. There are no archaeologically attested traces of any more or less significant political center of the palace type. Probably those closest to the truth are those who consider Akhhiyava to be one of the coastal Achaean states that arose in the 15th century. BC e. in the eastern part of the Aegean and adjacent areas in connection with the needs of the economic activity of the Achaeans, whose economy was based on maritime trade, often combined with robbery and piracy. Naturally, Rhodes most corresponded to such conditions, the advantageous geographical position of which was determined by the proximity of the coast of Asia Minor and at the same time safe distance from the main centers of the Hittite state.
Kastoria
The oldest fairy-tale city, which is located in Western Macedonia. The mountain lake of volcanic origin Orestiada gives it special beauty. Every traveler who visits this place is invariably delighted by the cozy residential areas with traditional streets, stately mansions, Byzantine churches, painted with frescoes of amazing beauty.
This ancient city was founded in 840 BC, although according to other sources its first inhabitants appeared here in the 20th century BC. led by the first semi-mythological king - the god Kekrop, with a human body and serpentine legs. By order of Kekrop, a “Cecropian wall” was erected, blocking the only passage to the Kastorian Peninsula, washed by the legendary Lake Orestiada, named after the Hellenic leader Orestes of Argos (Southern Greece), persecuted by the Dorians back in the 11th-10th centuries BC. On the basis of the later destroyed “Cecrop wall” in 525 AD. By order of the Byzantine Emperor Justinian I, a fortress wall and tower structures were erected, since the city of Kastoria during the Byzantine Empire (III-IV centuries AD) was the western bastion of Byzantium. However, the medieval version of the name of the city is associated with the presence of a large number of beavers in the lake and, translated from ancient Greek, “kastor” means beaver. Fur coat production, first in Kastoria and later its regions, originated, according to some scientists, already before the 14th century. The need for warm clothing for protection in conditions of a pronounced continental climate with cold winters led to the production of fur products from the skins of animals with thick hair. From the 16th century, when the demand for furs increased, since a fur coat not only served as protection from the cold, but was also an expression of the social well-being of its wearer, furriers in Kastoria began importing raw materials to then supply the whole of Europe with finished products. By the 18th century, the fur coat had conquered the entire civilized world and was already considered a must in women's fashion and partly in men's fashion. By that time, it was seen as an essential element of style and elegance. In 1894, the first machine for sewing fur pieces was imported into Kastoria (since before that the work was manual), and thus the mechanization of the fur industry was established, which could not help but march along with technological innovations. That is why Kastoria is also known as a center of fur production recognized throughout the world. Since this industry began to develop here back in the days of the Byzantine Empire, even the most discerning buyer will certainly find a fur coat to suit his taste.
The city has preserved more than 72 churches of the Byzantine and post-Byzantine periods with rare frescoes of the Cretan art school, which includes Theophanes the Greek. The most popular is the temple of the Holy Mother of God Mavriotis (11th century) on the shore of Lake Orestiada near a thousand-year-old plane tree.
Heraklion
The capital of Crete is one of the largest cities in Greece. Its history goes back more than 2.5 thousand years. One of the most famous monuments of the ancient civilization of Crete, the Palace of Knossos, is located 5 km from the city. Of great interest is the Archaeological Museum of Heraklion, which has collected a rich collection of exhibits from Knossos, Phaistos, Malia. Heraklion was once the most important port of the Venetians in the eastern Mediterranean. The powerful 16th century defensive walls built around the city have survived to this day. The Venetian fortress, the Morosini fountain, the Church of St. Mark, the Loggia are the main attractions of old Heraklion. Today the city of Heraklion is a major seaport, trade and tourist center. The resorts of Heraklion and north-eastern Crete offer all the conditions for a wonderful holiday. 20 km from the city, near the resort villages of Gouves and Stalida, on the sandy coast there are modern hotels and a water park. 34 km east of Heraklion is the tourist center of Malia. 3 km from the city you can visit the ruins of a Minoan palace, where a piece of jewelry was found depicting a bee, which is the talisman of Crete and is still made by jewelers on the island. On the western coast of Malia Bay, 26 km from Heraklion, there is one of the most popular resorts of northern Crete, Hersonissos, which is famous for its magnificent beaches and a large number of shops, bars, restaurants and discos that attract thousands of tourists, especially young people.
Sparta Σπάρτη
Sparta (ancient Greek Σπάρτη, lat. Sparta) is an ancient state in Greece in the region of Laconia in the south of the Peloponnese peninsula, in the valley of the Evrotas River.
State structure
Ancient Sparta is an example of an aristocratic military camp state, which, in order to suppress the huge mass of the forced population (helots), artificially restrained the development of private property and unsuccessfully tried to maintain equality among the Spartiates themselves. The basis for the emergence of the state in Sparta, usually attributed to the 8th-7th centuries. BC e., there were general patterns of decomposition of the primitive communal system. The organization of political power among the Spartiates was typical for the period of the collapse of the primitive communal system: two tribal leaders (possibly as a result of the unification of the Achaean and Dorian tribes), a council of elders, and a national assembly. In the VI century. BC e. has developed, the so-called “Lycurgus system” (establishment of heloty, consolidation of the community of Sparta by equalizing them economically and politically and turning this community into a military camp). At the head of the state were two archagets, who were chosen every eight years by divination by the stars. The army was subordinate to them and they had the right to most of the spoils of war, and had the right of life and death in campaigns.
Positions and authorities
Kings of Sparta - Sparta was always ruled by two kings from two dynasties: the Agids and the Eurypontids. Both dynasties descended from King Aristodemus. In case of war, one of the kings went on a campaign, and the other remained in Sparta.
Ephors are elected positions in whose hands judicial power was concentrated (there were 5 ephors in total, two of which, in case of war, accompanied the king on a campaign).
Gerusia is the highest government body in Sparta. Gerousia consisted of 30 people (28 geronts over the age of 60, elected for life, and 2 kings).
Navarch is one of the highest military positions in Sparta. The navarch commanded the Spartan fleet and had very broad powers, sometimes even going beyond the purely military (Aristotle called the navarch’s power “almost the second royal power”). The navarch was, for example, one of the most famous Spartan commanders, Lysander.
Chilo - legislator, one of the Seven Sages
XI century BC e. - emergence of the city-state of Sparta.
10th century BC e. – the territory of Laconia was conquered by the Dorians, who turned some of the former Achaean inhabitants into perieci (politically powerless, but civilly free), and some into helots (state slaves); The Dorians themselves formed the dominant class of the Spartiates.
9th century BC e. – the legislation of Lycurgus makes Sparta a strong military state that acquired hegemony over the Peloponnese and even dominance throughout Ancient Greece, right up to the period of the Greco-Persian wars.
743-724 BC e. - First Messenian War. Sparta captures part of Messenia.
685-668 BC e. - Second Messenian War. Sparta captures all of Messenia.
500-449 BC e. – Greco-Persian Wars.
480 BC e. - Battle of Thermopylae. The feat of three hundred Spartans.
479 BC e. – Battle of Plataea. Final victory for the Spartans and their allies.
479-464 BC e. - the war with Tegeatida, which ended with the victory of Sparta.
464-455 BC e. – Third Messenian War (revolt of the Messenian helots).
460-445 BC e. - Little Peloponnesian War. Division of spheres of influence between Athens and Sparta. Peace treaty for 30 years.
457 BC e. – Battle of Tanagra. Victory of the Spartans and their allies.
431-404 BC e. - Peloponnesian War. In their rivalry with the Athenians, the Spartans defeat them and become the dominant state in Greece.
427 BC e. – Capture of Plataea by the Spartans and destruction of most of the population.
425 BC e. - Defeat of the Spartans at Pylos.
422 BC e. – Battle of Amphipolis. Victory of the Spartans and their allies.
418 BC e. - Battle of Mantinea. Victory of the Spartans.
395-387 BC e. - Corinthian War. Victory of Sparta and Persia.
378-362 BC e. – The Boeotian War between the Boeotian League led by Thebes and the Peloponnesian League led by Sparta. No one won this war, but both sides were significantly weakened.
371 BC e. – Battle of Leuctra. Sparta loses its dominance in the war with Thebes.
362 BC e. - Battle of Mantinea. The battle ended in victory for the Spartans.
331 BC e. – War of Sparta and Macedonia.
331 BC e. – Battle of Megalopolis. Defeat of Sparta and its allies.
245-241 BC e. - an attempt at reform by Agis, which ended in failure.
235-221 BC e. - an attempt at reforms by Cleomenes, which were very successful, but were canceled by the Macedonian king Antigonus III after the military defeat of Sparta at the Battle of Sellasium.
229-222 BC e. - Cleomenes' War. The war of Sparta against the Achaean League and Macedonia for hegemony in the Peloponnese.
222 BC e. – Sparta suffers a heavy defeat at the Battle of Sellasia. Sparta is forced into the Hellenic Union.
220-217 BC e. - An allied war in which Sparta acts as an ally of the Aetolian League against the Hellenic League.
215-205 BC e. – First Macedonian War.
207 BC e. - Battle of Mantinea. The battle ended with the defeat of the Spartans and the death of their king Machanidas.
204 BC e. - The Spartans unsuccessfully try to capture Megalopolis.
201 BC e. - The Spartans invade Messenia but are defeated at Tegea.
195 BC e. – Laconian War, defeat of Sparta and its annexation to the Achaean League.
147 BC e. – Sparta leaves the Achaean League and receives the support of Rome. The Achaean War begins.
146 BC e. - all of Greece falls under the rule of Rome and becomes the Roman province of Achaea. Sparta and Athens at the same time received the rights of self-government within their territory, as a sign of memory of their former glory.
Estates
Aristocracy
Gomians (literally “equals”) are full citizens; they are most often called Spartans and Spartiates.
Parthenians (literally “virgin-born”) are the descendants of the children of unmarried Spartan women (the class appeared during the 20-year First Messenian War, then was deported to Tarentum).
Hypomeions (literally “descended”) are impoverished or physically disabled citizens, deprived of some civil rights for this.
Mofaki (literally "upstarts") are children of non-Gomaites who received a complete Spartan upbringing and therefore have some chance of obtaining full citizenship.
Neodamons (literally “new citizens”) are former helots (from among the Laconians) who received partial citizenship (the class appeared during the Peloponnesian War).
Perieki are free non-citizens (roughly analogous to the Athenian metics).
Laconian helots (who lived in Laconia) were state slaves, and it was they who sometimes received freedom (and, since the Peloponnesian War, also partial citizenship).
Messenian helots (who lived in Messenia) were state slaves, unlike other slaves, who had their own community, which later, after the independence of Messenia, served as the basis for recognizing them as free Hellenes.
Training of young Spartans
The Agogae system is a system of military education in Sparta. Contrary to popular belief, not every boy born in Sparta had to go through this system. This system was mandatory only for male children of full-fledged citizens (with the exception of royal ones). For other boys from other classes, going through this system was a special privilege, giving them a chance at full citizenship.
At birth, the boy was taken and taken to the edge of the Apophetes abyss, where he was examined for a very long time and carefully. If the boy was sick or weak, he was thrown into the abyss. And those who were left alive were subjected to various tests from infancy. The cribs in which the children slept were very rough and hard. At the age of seven, boys were sent to special military camps. There they learned to survive. Those who couldn't cope died. They slept on straw bedding, and they were only allowed to wear clothes from the age of 12. Some boys put nettles in their bedding so that it would burn them and warm them. The boys were intensely engaged in physical exercises, practicing wielding a sword and throwing a spear. They had to find food for themselves - steal, rob, and if necessary, kill.
They were sometimes allowed to “have fun,” that is, to organize so-called cryptias - the boys ran to neighboring villages (helots) and robbed them, and they took the strongest men with them and tore out their intestines, watching them die. At the age of 17, when the young Spartans had to return home, the last test awaited them - they had to get to the temple of Artemis, which was located very high in the mountains. Once there, the Spartan had to “make a sacrifice.” The priests of the temple tied the young man over a large sacrificial bowl and began to whip him with wet rods until the first drops of blood. This was the case if the young man did not make a single sound, but as soon as he made a sound, they beat him even harder until he remained silent. They could have beaten him until he lost consciousness and even died. This is how the weak were eliminated. Girls in Sparta did not go through this system, but they were forced to play a lot of sports, and sometimes were taught to use weapons.
Gorgippia (Sindian harbor) Γοργιππία is an ancient city on the Black Sea coast that existed in the 4th century BC. BC - III century AD e. as part of the Bosporan kingdom. Founded on the site of an ancient city, the center of the Sind tribe. It got its name from the royal governor Gorgippus. The area of the city was more than 40 hectares, it was surrounded by fortress walls. At the end of the 1st-2nd centuries BC. e. The city minted its own coin. It reached its greatest prosperity in the 1st-2nd centuries AD. e., becoming a major trade and craft center of the Bosporan kingdom. It was destroyed around 240 as a result of the invasion of barbarian tribes.
The settlement is located in the center of the modern city of Anapa. City blocks and rich burials have been partially excavated. An open-air museum-reserve “Gorgippia” has been created, where stone-paved streets, foundations and walls of dwellings, remains of workshops, wineries, fish-salting baths, marble slabs with inscriptions, sarcophagi of local nobility recovered from the necropolis, etc. are presented.
In 1975, in the center of Anapa, while digging a pit, a unique monument of ancient culture was discovered - a painted crypt of the Greek nobility. The crypt is called by archaeologists the “Crypt of Hercules” and dates back to the end of the 2nd and beginning of the 3rd century. Another crypt with two sarcophagi was discovered nearby. It turned out to be unplundered. One sarcophagus contained the remains of a noble Gorgippian with rich decorations. In another sarcophagus, two girls were buried - also with rich decorations. The finds formed the basis of the “Golden Pantry” of the Krasnodar Regional Museum-Reserve.
Mariupol
Mariupol (Ukrainian Mariupol) is a city in southeastern Ukraine on the shores of the Sea of Azov at the mouth of the Kalmius and Kalchik rivers.
Area densely populated by Greeks
Country Ukraine
Region: Donetsk region
Founded: 16th century
Former names
until 1778 – Domakha (Kalmius palanka)
before 1780 – Pavlovsk
until 1948 – Mariupol
until 1989 – Zhdanov
Population: 493,245 people (2009)
Agglomeration: Mariupol City Council
Confessional composition: Orthodox, Protestants, Jews
Telephone code: +380 629
Mariupol has been known since the beginning of the 16th century as a Cossack fortress, but it became a real city only after the resettlement of the Crimean Greeks to the Azov region in 1778-1780. At the end of the 19th century, a railway, a new large port and metallurgical plants - Nikopol and Russian Providence, later merged into the MMK named after. Ilyich. During the years of industrialization, the giant Azovstal plant and many other enterprises were built here. The city survived the fascist occupation (1941-1943) and economic recession (late 20th century).
The central district of Mariupol (from Metallurgov Avenue to Stroiteley Avenue) is almost completely administrative and commercial buildings: the city council building, post office, Lukov cinema, Mariupol Humanitarian University, Priazov State Technical University - Perm State Technical University, central city library named after Korolenko, large stores (supermarket “Moscow”, “A Thousand Little Things”, etc.).
From Mariupol there are direct railway connections with many cities of Ukraine, Russia, and Belarus. From Mariupol airport there are flights to cities in Ukraine, Russia, Turkey, Greece and other countries. The city has an international bus station and a suburban bus station AC-2. The Mariupol sea trade port (the largest on the Sea of Azov and one of the largest in Ukraine, cargo turnover is about 15 million tons per year) carries out cargo transportation to dozens of countries around the world all year round.
Chersonesos
City-state, founded at the end of the 5th century BC. Greek colonists. The Heraclean peninsula, on which Chersonesus was located (near the modern city of Sevastopol), was protected from its Taurian neighbors by a whole system of fortifications, which were a unique type of fortress estates. The powerful walls and towers around the city itself indicate that danger often threatened it from the warlike Scythian tribes of the steppe Crimea. In addition to the Heraclean Peninsula, Chersonese also owned lands on the western coast of Crimea, where Kerkinitis and the so-called Beautiful Harbor were located under its control.
According to its political structure in the V-I centuries BC. Chersonesus was a democratic slave-owning republic (ancient polis), from the 1st century BC. - an aristocratic republic, dependent on Rome, from the 4th century - in vassal dependence on Byzantium.
In the Middle Ages (until the 15th century) it was called Kherson, Korsun. Ruins on the outskirts of modern Sevastopol. Ruins of walls with towers, neighborhoods, temples, theaters, workshops, etc. Since 1978 - State Historical and Archaeological Reserve.
Ancient Hellas... No country in the world, either before or after it, had such a huge impact on the entire world civilization and on the formation and development of Western culture. It is to the ancient Hellenes that we owe, in a certain sense, the unified origin of our ideas about politics and science, philosophy and literature, architecture and art. And even more so, it seems surprising that the combined population of all ancient Greek cities was just over a million people.
Argos
The city of Argos is one of the most ancient cities in the world. The age of this city is no less than seven thousand years! Argos, due to its extremely advantageous geographical position, has always been a very strategically important settlement throughout the Mycenaean period. During the classical period, the city of Argos opposed Sparta and fought for political influence in the Peloponnese. During the famous Greco-Persian Wars, the city maintained neutrality, not supporting any of the parties to this conflict, and therefore remained isolated for some time.
The greatest flowering of Argos occurred in the seventh century BC during the reign of the famous king Phidon, who managed to conquer all the cities of Argolid, after which he again entered into confrontation with Sparta for the Peloponnese peninsula, and almost for the first time in history, Argos could confront on equal terms “ city of warriors." Before the Roman conquest, Argos was a member of the Achaean League and maintained friendly relations with Athens.
Athens
Athens, a city that received its name from the goddess of wisdom and knowledge, is one of the oldest cities in the world, and is now the capital of modern Greece. This city can rightfully be considered the cradle of democracy, freedom and art. This city was allegedly founded by the Pelasgians, an ancient, pre-Indo-European people who inhabited the Balkan Peninsula. There is an opinion that in the Pelasgian language “Athena” meant “hill” or “hill,” but with the arrival of the Hellenes the name began to be associated with Athena.
In 1600-1200 BC, in the era of Mycenae, Athens was already a fairly famous city, but the city reached the full flowering of its shining glory during the period that historians call the “golden age” of ancient Greek culture - in the 6-5 centuries. BC. It was during this period that Athens became one of the most important cultural and political centers.
Athens was famous throughout the world, first of all, for its philosophical schools. It is to Athens that the whole world owes the brilliant thought of Aristotle and. Even after the conquest by the Romans in 146 BC, the city did not lose its power and colossal significance. Athens became a province only in the sixth century AD, during the reign of the Byzantine Empire, under Emperor Justinian the First.
Delphi
In the first half of the 2nd millennium BC, Delphi already had cult significance for Ancient Hellas. Unfortunately, scientists have been unable to answer exactly when exactly this city was founded. But it is known that even in ancient times it was in Delphi that the cult of veneration of the deity of the Mother Earth developed. In the second half of the second millennium BC, the city was in decline, however, already in the middle of the first millennium BC. became significant again.
The rise of this city is directly related to the First Holy War of Delphi against the city of Chris, which ended in its destruction. Already in the seventh-sixth centuries BC, Delphi became something of a common sanctuary for all Hellenes. The oracle, that is, the local, Delphic oracle, exercised enormous influence throughout ancient Greece in religious and political affairs. Well, and, of course, we should not forget about the famous Pythian Games, which began to be held in Delphi from the beginning of the sixth century.
After the Olympic Games, this event was perhaps the second most important religious, sports and cultural event in all of Ancient Greece. Also, last but not least, the authority of Delphi was also connected with the fact that it was there that the omphalos, the sacred stone, was kept. In the first century BC, the Thracians literally devastated Delphi. Emperor Theodosius the First in 394 AD, along with the ban on the Olympic Games, also vetoed appeals to the Oracle.
Patras
The city of Patras was founded in the sixth century BC by the Achaeans of Laconia, who were pressed by the Darians on the Peloponnese peninsula. Prevgenis, the leader of the Achaeans, united three settlements: Mesati, Aroi and Anthia, thereby founding Patras. Prevgenis named the city after his son Patreos. In the 14th century BC, this city became almost the largest economic and political center in all of Attica. In the 10th century BC. there was a change in the political system. Instead of the already traditional tsarist rule, power passed to the civilian majority.
During the Persian invasion in 480, Patras was burned to the ground, but the surviving inhabitants of the city, united with other Hellenes, defeated the Persians and literally rebuilt their city from ruins and ashes. The Romans also appreciated the advantageous location of the city and, already during their reign, built a huge port in Patras. The Romans also granted Patras the privilege of minting their own coins. At the same time, a water supply system, an amphitheater and an Odeon were built in Patras.
Thessaloniki
The ancient Greek city of Thessaloniki was founded back in 315 by the Macedonian king Cassander, uniting twenty-six settlements. The city was created according to all Greek traditions, which were able to survive in it until the fifteenth century. When Thessaloniki was captured by the Romans in 146 BC, the city did not yet represent any strategically important center. But already during the Byzantine Empire its importance increased significantly. Thessaloniki found itself at the intersection of two important routes simultaneously: from Athens to the Black Sea region and from Constantinople to Rome. Thessaloniki became the second largest and most important city in the entire Byzantine Empire after the Arabs captured Antioch and Alexandria.
The system of statehood in Ancient Greece was unique and uncharacteristic for the ancient world. Let's look at why the Greeks are the inventors of democracy.
Polis system of Ancient Greece
Despite the fact that the entire territory of Ancient Greece was united by a common language, cultural values, religion, traditions, art, being and much more, which includes the social, cultural and spiritual spheres of society, politically Ancient Greece was a fragmented state. Each large city, called a polis, had a territory under its control, laws in force on it, and its own management system. It is in the Greek city policies that democracy practically reached its ideals, when the people determined the power and political course for the coming time, is reflected.
Rice. 1. Map of Greek poleis.
Not all cities in Greece had elected authorities. For example, in Sparta, power belonged to two kings at once, who governed the city.
The classical city-state in Ancient Greece included not only a populated area, but also surrounding arable land, pastures, and smaller settlements. In each city-state there lived citizens of the polis who had the right to vote, free foreigners and slaves. The polis in Ancient Greece was a center of crafts and trade, a center for the concentration of resources and the formation of political and social institutions.
In some policies, the number of free citizens was fewer than foreigners or slaves.
The sizes of the policies varied. The largest area was occupied by Sparta (8400 sq. km), of which Laconia was a historical region, and later Messenia was annexed. Attica, with its capital in Athens, owning the islands of Salamis and Oropus, had 2650 square meters. km. The size of other areas usually did not exceed 1000 square meters. km.
Rice. 2. Spartan warrior.
In the policy system, some rudiments of district specialization are noticeable. Some policies lacked livestock, others lacked wheat. The largest grain harvest was collected on the Athenian, Eleusinian and Marathon plains. In Boeotia, cattle breeding and fishing were successful.
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In total, in Ancient Greece there were several large city-states that played a significant role in the political games of the Greek archon-rulers. These are, first of all, Athens and Sparta. But Thebes and Mycenae, Corinth and Delphi played a significant role in the life of the Greeks.
Colonization activities of policies
The colonizing activities of the Greeks in ancient times are known. Having fast and strong ships, they sailed the expanses of the Mediterranean Sea. Greek colonies were founded in the Crimea and the Caucasus, on the coast of Cyrenaica and southern Italy, in Spain and Asia Minor. On the shores of the Bosphorus Strait, the colony-city of Byzantium was founded, on the site of which, thousands of years later, Constantinople (Istanbul) will still stand.
The first wave of colonization was caused by rising birth rates. The Greeks in Greece simply did not have enough space on the peninsula. People were looking for a better life in other, undeveloped lands.
Rice. 3. Map of Greek colonies.
The second wave occurred due to the invasion of Greece by the Dorian tribes, who displaced part of the indigenous population.
What have we learned?
In ancient times, Greek city-states turned out to be an island of democracy in the monarchical states surrounding the Balkans. The first experience of people's power, which has gained wide popularity today, took place in the city policies thousands of years ago.
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Ancient Greece is the mother of modern European culture. In this top, Delitant.media author Alexandra Mikhailidi has collected her most important children - cities that were first among equals
Miletus is the richest ancient Greek city. It was located in Caria on the western coast of Asia Minor. Herodotus especially singled out Miletus, calling it “the pearl of Ionia (region of Asia Minor).”
The first settlements on the territory appeared in the second half of the 4th millennium BC. e. The city received its name in honor of the hero Miletus, who, according to legend, founded it after moving from Crete.
Miletus earned his wealth thanks to the tyrant rulers Thrasybulus, Thoas and Damasenor. The city had 80-90 colonies along the banks of the Pontus, among which were Cyzicus, Sinop, A bidos, Tomi and Olivia. Even in Ancient Egypt there was a Milesian colony - Navkartis. Miletus defended its independence more than once, fighting the Lydian kings and Persian rulers.
Now the ruins of Miletus are located on the territory of modern Turkey. Archaeologists found fragments of Minoan-style frescoes and Linear writing texts in it.
Herodotus called Miletus "the pearl of Ionia"
During the classical period, Corinth rivaled Athens and Thebes in trade and control of transport across the isthmus. Also until the middle of the 6th century BC. e. he was the largest supplier of black-figure pottery to other cities throughout the Greek world. However, leadership later passed to Athens.
On the acropolis of the city there was the main temple, which is dedicated to the goddess Aphrodite. From the memories of eyewitnesses, the temple was the center of priestesses (putanas), of whom more than a thousand accumulated there. They always wore long hair and the longer the hair, the higher the demand for it. Local men believed that the hair of the priestesses of the temple of Aphrodite had magical properties: it helped its owners not to get tired and restore internal balance.
By the way, ordinary women wore long dresses that covered them from head to toe. Priestesses never wore scarves, veils or anything else that would cover their hair.
In addition, the Isthmian Games, ancient Greek games in honor of the god Poseidon, were held in Corinth: there were gymnastic, equestrian, poetic and musical competitions.
Corinth was the largest supplier of black-figure ceramics
Athens, a city named after the ancient Greek goddess of wisdom, is considered to be the cradle of European civilization. Athens is the birthplace of theater, philosophy and democracy.
In general, the tradition of theater in Athens was different from modern ones. Firstly, only men could become actors who did not use facial expressions during the performance, but conveyed emotions only with the help of masks and plasticity. Also, tragedies were valued more than comedies, which were generally considered entertainment for the plebeians.
In ancient Greece, Athens had the status of a city-state; it was governed by a popular assembly, which included citizens of the polis. Executive power was vested in the Council of Five Hundred, which included representatives of the phyla (socio-professional groups) - they were chosen by lot. Judicial and supervisory power was in the hands of the grand jury, also elected by lot. Thus, any citizen could become the ruler of Athens or the chief judge.
Now Athens is the economic, cultural and administrative center of Greece. In the 30s of the 20th century, the study of Athens by archaeologists began, but the systematic nature of excavations was acquired only thanks to the formation of English, French and German archaeological schools in Athens in the 70s and 80s.
In ancient Greece, Athens had the status of a city-state
Thebes is the city of seven gates. It was surrounded by a wall on all sides, and a stream flowed near the city, which may have been used instead of a moat. This stream, by the way, was sung by Virgil in his works.
Many ancient Greek myths are associated with Thebes, since the history of Thebes dates back to the heroic periods. Mention of the city can be found in the tales of Cadmus (the founder of Cadmea), Zeta and Amphion, who are the founders of Thebes, Dionysus, the Labdacids and, of course, Hercules.
There are also known myths about Oedipus, about the origin of the seven kings against Thebes, about the campaign of the epigones. Many philologists and historians find real historical memories in the texts of ancient legends, although, of course, much of them is fiction. However, in the myths there are memories of the struggle of Sikyon and Argos with Thebes, in the legends of Hercules - memories of the prehistoric struggle of the two rival cities of Boeotia, Thebes and Orchomenus of Minius
In addition, it was Thebes that gave the world two widespread complexes - Oedipus and Electra.
Cities arose before our era. They were built by representatives of an ancient civilization that spread far beyond the borders of modern Greece. Where were its borders? Where were cities built and how did they change over time?
Ancient civilization
Currently, the Republic of Greece is a state in Europe located in the southern part of the Balkan Peninsula and on the adjacent islands. It is washed by five seas and covers an area of 131,957 square kilometers.
The small European country is the successor to a culture that influenced the development of science and art throughout Western civilization. The following periods are distinguished in the history of its development:
- Cretan-Mycenaean (III-I millennium BC);
- Homeric (XI-IX centuries BC);
- archaic (VIII-VI centuries BC);
- classical (V-IV centuries BC);
- Hellenistic (second half of the 4th - mid-1st century BC).
By the way, Ancient Greece was not a single state with strict borders and a capital. A represented many independent cities that fought and competed with each other. Most of the cultural achievements of this civilization known to us were made during its heyday - the classical period, when the policies of the Aegean Sea united into a union led by Athens.
The first Greek cities
Three thousand years ago on the island of Crete there was a pre-Greek population with a highly developed culture. They already had religious cults, a complex political and economic system, fresco painting and even writing. All this was appropriated by the first tribes of the Greeks - the Achaeans, having conquered and assimilated the Minoans.
First they conquered the Balkan Peninsula and local agricultural tribes. Having united with the pre-Greek peoples on Crete, the Achaeans gave rise to the Cretan-Mycenaean civilization. The formation of the Greek nation begins here.
In the second millennium BC, the Mycenaeans already had their own cities (Mycenae, Athens, Tiryns, Orchomena). Like the Minoans, their centers were luxurious palaces. But, unlike the previous peaceful culture, the cities of the Mycenaeans were surrounded by powerful walls. Inside them, as a rule, there was another wall surrounding the palace and the acropolis.
The sudden appearance of barbarian tribes managed to destroy the Mycenaean civilization. Only a few local residents remained (Ionians, Aeolians). The invasion of the barbarian Dorians and related tribes pushed back the development of culture hundreds of years ago.
Wooden and clay houses replace former two-story palaces, and there are no trade relations. At the same time, hostilities, piracy and slavery intensify. In addition, the population is engaged in agriculture and cattle breeding, and Greek cities are more like villages.
Great Colonization
Society is divided into classes. The level of agriculture, crafts and military power is growing. The city becomes an important economic, religious and political center. In the VIII-VI centuries. BC e. Shipbuilding is developing, and with it trade in products and slaves.
Metropolises begin to send colonists to explore new lands. Fortified city-states, or policies, appeared on the shores of the Northern Black Sea region, the Mediterranean Sea and Asia Minor. This is how Miletus, Colophon, Olbia (Ionians), Smyrna (Aeolians), Halicarnassus, Chersonesos (Dorians) arise. Greek civilization extends from modern Rostov-on-Don all the way to Marseille.
Colonization takes place mainly peacefully. A special person, an oikist, chooses a landing site, negotiates with local tribes, conducts cleansing rituals and plans the location of the settlement.
Polis were usually located on the coast, near sources of drinking water. One of the main criteria for choosing a location was the relief. It had to provide natural protection, preferably with elevated areas to accommodate the acropolis.
Life in policies
Ordinary workers, dissatisfied with the local tyrant aristocrats, often signed up for the fate of the colonists. In the colonies, the influence of tribal traditions is not so noticeable, which allows not only the economy, but also culture to grow. Very soon the policies become prosperous states with rich art, architecture and an active socio-political life.
Standard Greek cities were inhabited by 5 to 10 thousand people. Their territory covered up to 200 square meters. km. The population of large policies numbered up to two hundred thousand people (Sparta, Lacedaemon). Viticulture, olive oil production, horticulture and gardening represented the basis of the economy and were sold through barter or sale. The population consisted mainly of farmers and artisans.
The poleis were democratic republics. At the heart of society was civil society. Each had a plot of land as security for his obligations to the policy. With the loss of the plot, he was also deprived of his civil rights. There were up to two thousand full-fledged citizens (male warriors) taking part in politics. The remaining residents (foreigners, slaves, women and children) did not vote.
Policy layout
The first policies did not have a clear structure and layout. Ancient Greek cities were built according to the terrain. A port or harbor was created on the coast. Policies often had a “two-tier system.” On a hill there was an acropolis (upper city), surrounded by powerful walls.
The acropolis contained the main temples and monuments. The lower city housed residential buildings and a market square - the agora. It served as the center of political and social life. The courthouse, assembly and People's Council were located here, transactions were made and city decisions were made.
In the classical period, policies acquired a systematic layout developed by Hippodamus. Residential areas and streets form a grid with rectangular or square cells. The agora and houses are located strictly within the cells. All objects are grouped around several wide main streets. Centuries later, this plan was used as a basis by architects in New York and other cities.
Names of Greek cities
The borders of Ancient Greece affected the territories of many modern countries: Bulgaria, Ukraine, Italy and others. Prosperous colonial cities long ago turned into ruins, and their names, due to political and social reasons, changed.
Modern Greek cities have retained their former names. Athens, Corinth, Thessaloniki, and Chalkis still exist in the world. In some countries they only changed their names slightly, for example, the colony of Akragant in Italy became Agrigento, and Gela became Jeley. In the Northern Black Sea region, the modern names of Greek cities have become completely unrecognizable.
Listed below are those ancient Greek cities of the Black Sea region that changed their names. In parentheses are their modern names and locations:
- Panticapaeum (Kerch, Crimea);
- Kerkinitida (Evpatoria, Crimea);
- Dioscuria (Sukhumi, Abkhazia);
- Chersonesus (near Sevastopol, Crimea);
- Olvia (near Ochakov, Ukraine);
- Cafe (Feodosia, Crimea).
Cities of Greece today
Today there are 65 cities in Greece. Many of them were founded before our era. What are the largest modern cities in Greece: Athens, Thessaloniki and Patras?
Athens is the capital of Greece, its main economic and cultural center. This is one of the oldest cities in Europe; the first mention of it dates back to the 16th century BC. Modern Athens is famous not only for its ancient monuments, but also for its first-class nightclubs and huge shopping centers. Today, about 4 million people live in this metropolis.
Thessaloniki is the second most populous city in the country. It is also the oldest city in which many monuments of the ancient and Byzantine periods have been preserved. Thessaloniki is also famous for its numerous industrial enterprises: metallurgical, textile, ship repair. The second largest brewery in Greece operates here.
Patras is the main city of the Peloponnese with a population of about 230 thousand inhabitants. It was founded in the sixth century BC. It was here that Andrew the First-Called, one of the twelve apostles of Christ, died a martyr's death. Modern Patras is an important cultural center of Southern Europe. Every spring the famous Patras Carnival is held here.