Who founded palmyra. Why is Palmyra, a city in Syria, under the special protection of UNESCO? Historical value of the ruins of Palmyra

world heritage site

At present, on the site of Palmyra, there is a Syrian village and the ruins of majestic buildings that are among the best examples of ancient Roman architecture and recognized by UNESCO as a World Heritage Site. Along the main street of the ancient city there are colonnades and monumental arches. Among the most significant buildings are the temple of Baal (I century), the temple of Baalshamin (II century), the agora (III century), a theater with a community center and a caravanserai. In May 2015, as a result of the capture of Palmyra by ISIS militants, many monuments that were not taken away by the authorities were looted and/or destroyed.

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  The oldest mentions of Tadmor date back to the 1st half of the 2nd millennium BC. e. (in Cappadocian tablets and documents from Mari). At the end of the 2nd millennium BC. e. Palmyra was destroyed by the Assyrians, in the 10th century. BC e. (?) According to the Bible and Joseph Flavius, Palmyra was founded by the Israeli king Solomon as an advanced stronghold against the attacks of the Aramaic hordes on his possessions, stretching to the banks of the Euphrates. Nebuchadnezzar II, during the invasion of Jerusalem, ruined it, but soon, due to its favorable position between the Mediterranean sea on the one hand, and the Euphrates valley on the other, it was rebuilt again and became a haven for trade caravans and a warehouse center that went from West to East and back . Here was the capital of the Palmyrene state, ruled by its own sovereigns, the Senate and the people's assembly. According to the latest data from archaeologists, Palmyra was founded by the king of the Hurrians Tukrisha.

  Old Testament, 1 Kings, chapter 9. 16 Pharaoh, the king of Egypt, came and took Gezer, and burned it with fire, and beat the Canaanites who lived in the city, and gave it as a dowry to his daughter, the wife of Solomon. (Gazer or Gezer given to Solomon). 17 And Solomon built Gazer and lower Bethoron, (Construction and restoration of fortress cities). 18 and Baalath and Tadmor in the desert, (Construction and restoration of fortress cities, in the depths of the Syrian steppe (desert) there is an oasis of Tadmor or Fadmor (Palmyra), however, in the III-II millennium BC, until the camel became the main transport means and communication between Syria and Palestine, on the one hand, and Mesopotamia, on the other, due to the rarity of wells on the way, it could not yet be carried out directly through the steppe, this oasis did not matter, and it was under Solomon that the city was built here). Scientific explanation of the Bible:

  Odaenathus was succeeded by his son, Gairan, who soon died, and then another son, also Odaenathus, who took the side of the Romans in their war with the Persians and received for this from Valerian and Gallienus in 258 the title of consularis (governor with the rank of consul). Not satisfied with this title, he, after Valerian was captured by the Persians, proclaimed himself "king of kings" (in 260).

  After a victorious campaign against the Persians, before Ctesiphon on the Tigris, Odaenathus was killed by his nephew, Meoniy (in 267), and his wife, Zenobia, entered the Palmyrene throne, significantly expanding the boundaries of her state and even dreaming of subjugating Rome itself. Under her, Palmyra reached the apogee of its prosperity, which, however, lasted only a short time.

  War in Syria

  Capture of Palmyra by ISIS (May 2015)

  Since 2012, due to ongoing hostilities in Syria, several hundred monuments have been evacuated from Palmyra, but not all of them are transportable.

  On May 20, 2015, the militants of the ISIS terrorist organization took control of almost the entire territory of Palmyra, in connection with which there were fears that it would suffer the same fate as a number of other architectural monuments in Iraq destroyed by militants. A month later, they began to destroy the cultural heritage: on June 27, the statue of the Lion of Allat was demolished, on August 23 it became known that the temple of Baalshamin had been blown up. The militants also executed the custodian of Palmyra, the famous Syrian archaeologist 82-year-old Khaled al-Asaad. On August 30, 2015, the Islamists blew up the temple of Bela, destroying it. Satellite photographs from space have confirmed these facts. UNESCO condemned the barbaric acts. On September 4, three of the best-preserved burial towers, which had been built during the Roman period for wealthy families in the Valley of the Tombs, were destroyed. Experts believe that terrorists destroy only what they cannot sell. At the same time, they gave permission to "black" archaeologists to look for artifacts in order to sell them on the black market. On October 5, 2015, militants blew up the Arc de Triomphe of the era of Ancient Rome - a symbol of Palmyra and ancient Syria.

  Liberation of Palmyra

  On March 25, the Syrian army liberated the historic castle of Fakhr ad-Din, which dominates Palmyra. In addition, the hotel complex "Semiramis" and the area of ​​restaurants were liberated in the south-west of the city, the citadel (fortress) was liberated, and the valley of the necropolis was also liberated. On March 26, militant groups continued their retreat to the northern outskirts of Palmyra. However, both in the east and in the west, the terrorists continued to put up fierce resistance. From the ancient castle of Palmyra, the Syrian military tore off the black flag of ISIS and defiantly burned it.

  On March 27, the Syrian government army completely liberated Palmyra from ISIS terrorists. On the same day, the sapper units of the Syrian army began clearing the houses and streets of Palmyra. On March 28, the media (Russia-1 TV channel) reported that all of Palmyra had been liberated. On the same day, at 15:00 local time, the state flag of Syria was raised in the center of Palmyra.

  Reports of ISIS activity began on December 8, 2016. On December 9, fighting took place on the outskirts of Palmyra, ISIS militants used shahid-mobiles (cars with explosives) to break through the defense, it was reported that a tank without a turret was used for this, stuffed with explosives. On December 8–9, the Syrian Air Force and the Russian Aerospace Forces delivered massive air strikes against the advancing militants, and the militant offensive was suspended. On December 9, the Russian military, part of the government troops and part of the city's residents left Palmyra. On December 10, the IS militant offensive resumed, they managed to capture the grain elevators in the east of Palmyra, and on December 11, the militants took control of Palmyra. On December 10–11, 2016, about 4,000 IS militants attacked Tadmor from different directions. Under the onslaught of superior forces, the Syrian army and the militia left the city and moved to the outskirts

  On Monday, December 12, 2016, detachments of the Islamic State armed formations continued their offensive from Palmyra in a westerly direction, reports the Arabic publication Al-Mazdar. The terrorists took control of Palmyra on December 11, 2016. According to the publication, the terrorists also captured the settlements of al-Bayarat and ad-Dawwa to the west of Palmyra and the oil field of Haiyan. According to Talal Barazi, governor of the province of Homs, in which Palmyra is located, 80% of the population was evacuated from the city.

  France blamed Russia for the fall of Palmyra. Foreign Minister Jean-Marc Hérault believes that Moscow has distracted itself from the fight against ISIS.

  Immediately after the fall of Palmyra, the liberation operation began. On March 2, 2017, Palmyra was returned to the control of the Syrian government with the support of the Russian Aerospace Forces and SOF.

  Ruins

  The remains of the capital of antiquity were buried under the sands during frequent sand storms here, and those buildings that remained on the surface served as building material for the huts of local residents. Much of what was of interest from the point of view of art was looted and transported to large cities, and from there to the museums of world capitals. When, in the 12th century, the Spanish rabbi Benjamin reached Palmyra, he saw only an Arab village, located in the huge courtyard of the temple of the god Bel.

  The second discovery of Palmyra occurred at the beginning of the 17th century, when the Italian traveler Pietro della Valle stumbled upon the ancient ruins. Around 1692, the English pastor Halifax came here. He was the first to copy three Palmyrene inscriptions, but he failed to read the Palmyrene letter. In 1678, the English merchant Halifax found the hard-to-reach ruins of Palmyra; in -1753 they were first examined and described by Robert Wood and James Dawkins. Archaeological excavations began at the end of the 19th century and continue to this day (see also the section Palmyra in the article Mikhalovsky, Kazimierz). In 2008, archaeologists announced the discovery of the foundations of the largest church in Syria, measuring 47 by 27 meters.

  The ruins stretch from southeast to northwest in a continuous row for about 3 km, at the foot of several hills, and consist of the remains of structures belonging to different eras. The Late Antique ruins are dominated by the Corinthian order. At the eastern end of the space occupied by the ruins rises the temple of the sun (Baal-Helios) - a majestic peripter 55 1/3 m long, 29 m wide, with 8 columns in each short face and 16 columns in the long one. The interior of the temple is a vast room, with a vault broken into cassettes, with a luxurious, well-preserved stucco ornamentation of friezes and walls, consisting of leaves and fruits.

  Opposite the northwestern corner of the temple were the entrance gates, similar to the triumphal arch of Constantine in Rome. From them, through the whole city, for 1135 m, a road stretched, furnished with four rows of columns, on the architrave of which other, smaller columns were placed. These four colonnades divided the road lengthwise into three parts: the middle one, wider, served for carriages and riders; two side, narrower - for pedestrians. The height of the lower columns is 17 m. There were 1500 in total, that is, 375 in each row.

  The entire soil of the former city is covered with fragments of capitals, entablature, sculptural friezes and other architectural fragments, among which, to the west of the temple of the Sun, the remains of other temples, palaces, colonnades, altars, aqueducts are visible, and behind the collapsed city wall, which was the construction of the times of Justinian, lies in a small valley a necropolis with numerous burial caves and sixty family tombs, built in the form of towers of huge hewn stones. At the top of one of the neighboring hills rises a castle of later Arab construction.

  Rebuilding after the destruction of 2015

  During the capture of Palmyra by ISIS militants (2015-2016), some structures were deliberately destroyed, others were plundered for the purpose of sale.

  On March 28, 2016, the head of the Department of Antiquities and Museums of Syria, Maamoun Abd al-Karim, said that the restoration of Palmyra could take five years. According to him, 80% of the ancient buildings of Palmyra are in good condition. The State Agency for the Protection of Monuments of Syria said that the Syrian army did not harm the monuments during the storming of the city. Work on the restoration of the monuments will begin in April. Specialists plan to restore two temples, the Monumental Arch and the tomb towers. The plan to restore Palmyra consists of three stages. At the first stage, unstable buildings will be supported, at the second stage, the restoration of most of the monuments will take place, and at the third stage, experts plan to rebuild the temples of Bel and Baalshamin destroyed by terrorists. According to experts, international norms allow resorting to the latter measure only in exceptional cases.

  According to the order of the President of Russia Vladimir Putin, the International Mine Action Center of the Armed Forces of the Russian Federation took part in the demining of the city. The State Hermitage will take part in the restoration of the city's historical monuments. The first groups of Russian sappers arrived in Palmyra in the last days of March. The demining of the archaeological zone was completed on 21 April.

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  Notes

  1. archINFORM - 1994.

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  The fabulous eastern city, located 240 kilometers from Damascus, was abandoned and forgotten by people for a thousand years. What was wrong with Palmograd, also called “royal Palmyra” (as opposed to St. Petersburg - “northern Palmyra”)? Why was the capital of a vast eastern power in ancient Syria destroyed by the Romans in 272, and the city was covered with the sands of the desert approaching from the south? Why was he forgotten? Only the “groves” of columns that stood under the wind and the protruding walls reminded of the former grandeur and splendor of Palmyra.

  The honor of its “discovery” in the 17th century belongs to the Italian Pietro della Balle. Other curious people followed him. But they were not believed. Only a hundred years later, the English artist Wood brought sketches of Palmyra. He managed to make them fashionable engravings, and with them the theme of Palmyra became fashionable. Predatory and professional excavations followed, in which the Russians took an active part. One of them - S. Amalebek-Laza-Rev - made the most interesting find from a historical point of view - a five-meter stele with the Palmyra toll decree of 137. She stood on the agora (square) opposite the temple of the god Rabasire, the lord of the underworld, and now stands in the Hermitage.

  Seeing Palmyra for the first time, S. Amabelek-Lazarev exclaimed:

  "Oh, isn't this a dream? Suddenly the road turned sharply to the right, and you involuntarily stop your horse - the impression is amazing. You are standing on a mountainside between tall burial towers. The wind in them roars furiously. In front of you is a vast field, on it are several hundred columns, sometimes stretching along alleys a verst long, sometimes forming groves; between them are buildings, triumphal arches, porticos, walls in the middle of the picture, outside the city - the ruins of the temple of the Sun - a colossal square building. Its walls are still intact and amaze you with their size from afar. To the right of the Temple of the Sun is the Pal-Mir oasis; the eye is fascinated by the bright green of the crops, with dark patches of palms lying on them and silvery ridges of olives. Outside the city stretches a boundless desert, beyond the oasis - salt marshes. The lighting is magical, the combination of tones is indescribable. Delicate pink and golden tones of the ruins lay against the purple background of the mountains and the blue of the desert.

  Indeed, the beauty of Palmyra is the beauty of the city, which naturally blends into the surrounding nature.

  It is absolutely known that already in the III millennium BC. e. Palmyra was inhabited by Semitic tribes. The first time it is mentioned in the Cappadocian tablets of the II millennium BC. e. under the name Tadmor (in Aramaic, this word means "wonderful", "beautiful"). The next time the city is mentioned in the inscription of the Assyrian king Tiglathpalasar I in the list of conquered cities: "Tadmor, which lies in the country of Amurru." Presumably, the city was attacked by the king of Babylon Nebuchadnezzar II in the VI century BC. uh..

  Then there was no mention of Tadmor until Roman times. Appian's "Civil Wars" tells how the Roman commander Mark Antony in 42-41 BC. e. unsuccessfully tried to rob the city. This operation failed him only because the inhabitants, having taken all the most valuable, went to the banks of the Euphrates.

  They probably felt that the victory in the civil war would not remain with Antony and Cleopatra, but with Octavian Augustus, and they were not mistaken. Indeed, in the III century BC. e. Tadmor became an "ally" of Rome and served as a buffer in Rome's struggle with the Parthians. Formally, it remained independent and was not even included in the Roman province of Syria. Only under Tiberius, the successor of Augustus, the city began to pay taxes and received the name Palmyra - the city of palm trees.

  In 105 BC. e. Emperor Trajan captured the neighboring city of Petra and destroyed the independence of Southern Syria, which played a major role in the East-West transit trade. Here the time has come for Palmyra, which got rid of its main competitor. Especially after the year 200, when immigrants from Syria, the North, sat on the Roman throne.

  After all, Tadmor-Palmyra was primarily a merchant, caravan city. It originated in an oasis on the edge of the desert and mountains, where the underground source of Efka beat with tepid sulfurous water. Every second, 150 liters of water were thrown out of an underground cave 100 meters long (there are still baths there). Wandering merchants settled here for the night, and even for many days of rest. Gradually, the source became a meeting place and a resale market for those who did not want to move on, preferring to donate a part to the dealer, rather than lose everything in the event of an attack by the bandit Bedouin tribes.

  Efka was at a distance of five days' journey from the Euphrates and near the place where Palmyra arose from the oasis. The exceptional importance of this crossroads was that it united Rome with South Arabia, Iran and India. In Palmyra, the western wheeled roads ended, here any goods had to be reloaded onto camels, and vice versa. Palmyra merchants organized, equipped and led caravans across the desert to the Euphrates. They received additional profit if they managed to avoid attacks on the caravan of ubiquitous nomads. Because of all this, Palmyra quickly became a city of customs, inns and taverns. Horsemen, porters, warriors, money changers, prostitutes, priests of even the smallest gods, translators, healers, veterinarians, runaway slaves, architects, masters of all crafts, spies, people of other professions settled here - in fact, there was not only the Roman procurator and emperor.

  The city had huge incomes from the collection of duties. The largest monument of Palmyrene legislation, which has already been mentioned, is dedicated to duties and is carved in two languages, Greek and Aramaic.

  “Under Bonnaeus, son of Bonnaeus, son of Khairan, and Alexander the grammarian, son of Philopator, in the archonship of Malik, son of Solat, son of Mokimu, and Zobeida, son of Nesa, when the Council was assembled in accordance with the law, he decreed what is written below.

  Since in former times in the law on duties, many items that were subject to duty were not listed and collected according to custom, because it was written in the contract that the tax collector should collect according to law and custom, and therefore litigation often took place between merchants and collectors, it was decided by the Council that these archons and decaprotes consider what is not listed in the law, and let it be written in a new contract for each item its duty.

  This was followed by an impressive list of taxable goods: slaves - 12 denarii each, camel cargo - 3 denarii, donkey - 2, purple wool - 28 denarii per fleece, fragrant myrrh - 25 per alabaster vessel, firs in goat furs - 7, oil - 4, salted fish - 10 et cetera.

  But it was a toll that the city took. In the second part of the decree, it turns out that one more fee was taken by the prefect Gaius Licinius Mucianus, and he did not take it himself, but gave it to a certain Alkimus with a companion. These pulled money for everything: for driving cattle, for trading in the city, for a load of nuts, scrupulously noting every little thing (they divided even prostitutes into two categories: those who take a denarius for intercourse, and those who are larger, and accordingly taxed).

  After reading in detail this “poem of just extortion”, crowning the public and social life of the city, you understand how far the interests of this “vice-empire” of Rome in the East were from the imperial problems of the “metropolis” and at the same time how interested the Palmyrians were in peace. It is known, after all, that the Romans will fight, and the merchants will pay for the war. And it is no coincidence that at the end of the 2nd century the Romans created a special police magistrate in Palmyra to monitor the mood of the townspeople and passing merchants. The measure is quite understandable: you can rely on the loyalty of the Palmyrenes as much as you like, but if the scales tilt towards the enemies, the “friends of the Roman people” are unlikely to donate their last shirt to him, and not the last one either.

  Throughout their way of life, the Patmirians were typical cosmopolitan merchants. Many of the purely mercantile interests even took second, Roman, names, although they were all a symbiosis of Aramaeans, Semites and Arabs. At the same time, protecting their wealth from the mob, the Palmyrenes used precisely the Roman experience, holding back the indignation of the impoverished masses and the dissatisfied with constant handouts. There were no hungry people in Palmyra. For this, tessers were distributed - a kind of tokens in the form of coins, giving the right to the owners to participate in the distribution of food, funeral feasts and wedding feasts, visit the theater and enjoy other PLEASURES. With the help of a tesser, one could go on a journey and, presenting it in a foreign city to a person who was considered here a “friend and guest” of Palmyra, received free food and lodging for the night. In a number of cases, tesserae played the role of talismans under the auspices of one or another deity, so the names of their owners are not Roman, but local. From them you can also find out the names of the genera and the hereditary profession.

  The polytheism of the Palmyrenes was explained by the multinational population and the presence of multi-tribal merchants. With the latter, the gods arrived from all corners of the East. Atar-gatis, Ishtar, Anahita, Tammuz, Allat, Ardu, Tarate, Manu, Nebo and hundreds of others lived peacefully here. But most of the temples were built in honor of the sun god (Bol - Bel - Baal). He had dozens of incarnations, for example, Malak-Bol - the Sun of the Night, or Mahak-Bed - the Messenger, or Baal-Shamen - Thunder and Lightning, he is also Great and Merciful. It is impossible for an uninitiated person to understand the Palmyra polytheism. It is likely that the Palmyrenes themselves, like the Egyptians, did not know all their gods. Yes, they would not have had enough time, money, or physical strength to honor everyone. Therefore, we will focus on the main thing. This is the solar triad Bel-Bol, Iarih-Bol and Ali-Bol, in many respects similar to the analogous Egyptian triad Ra-Hoor-Akht. The main one is Bel-Bol, and the most famous temple of Palmyra, the temple of the Sun, which became the prototype for the temple in Baalbek (Baalbek - lit. “Valley of the Sun”), was erected outside the city. At the same time, it is the largest temple in Palmyra, post-Roeny in the 2nd century.
  The temple stands on an extended foundation in the middle of a huge courtyard surrounded by columns. Its length is 60 meters, and its width is 31. Three entrances lead to the temple, decorated with portals, which in turn are decorated with bas-reliefs. One of them depicts a sacrificial procession: women, covered with veils, are walking behind camels. This bas-relief is silent proof that the veil was not introduced in the East by the Islamists.

  It is almost impossible to describe the entire grandiose complex of the temple, it must be seen. Let's just say that in terms of its grandeur it can be safely put on a par with the Colosseum and that the elements of the Greco-Roman architectural style in it coexist peacefully with oriental traditions. For example, the floor beams were crowned with sharp triangular battlements, as in Babylon, and the capitals were made of bronze, which were removed and melted down by the Aurelian legionnaires. Aurelian himself tried to erect a similar temple of the Sun in Rome and even spent 3,000 pounds of gold, 1,800 pounds of silver and all the jewels of the Palmyran queen on it.

  Later, the Arabs used the ruins of the temple as a stronghold in the fight against the Crusaders, the building was badly damaged, but compared to other monuments, it has survived to this day in a satisfactory condition.

  However, the Temple of the Sun is not the main attraction of Palmyra: the main street, which started from the Arc de Triomphe, built around 200, and passed through the entire city from the southeast to the northwest, created world fame for it. The double Arc de Triomphe stands not across the street, but at an angle - to straighten the bend in this place. Paradoxically, the same architectural technique was repeated in Northern Palmyra - St. Petersburg: this is the arch of the General Staff.

  The length of the main street is 1100 meters. It consisted of a carriageway 11 meters wide, framed in its entire length by columns, and two covered sidewalks 6 meters wide. On both sides of the sidewalk there were workshops of artisans, which at the same time were shops. Corinthian columns (their total number was at least 1124 in antiquity) reached 10 meters in height. On special ledges of columns - consoles, sometimes higher, sometimes lower, sculptural busts of merchants, heads of caravans and persons who rendered services to the city were exhibited. A distinctive feature of the Palmyrenes can be considered the fact that they put busts to each other, and not to themselves. The columns of the central square square - the agora - carried about 200 sculptural images. Moreover, there was "localism": in the north, the columns were decorated with busts of officials, in the south - by caravan drivers "Synodiarchs", in the west - by military leaders, in the east - by archons and senators. All the nobility of the oligarchic republic, where the “Council and the people” ruled under the vigilant eye of Rome, was presented very clearly. Later, busts of members of the monarchically ruling Odenates dynasty appeared on the commemorative columns. They bore magnificent Roman titles: "Head of Palmyra" ("Ras Tadmor"), consul of Rome, vice-emperor of Rome in the East, leader of the Romans in the East. The busts themselves have come down to us in single copies, but inscriptions have been preserved that speak volumes:

  “This statue is Septimius Khapran, the son of Odvnat, the most illustrious senator and head of Palmyra, which was erected to him by Aurelius Filin, the son of Marius Filin, (who is) the son of Rasai, a warrior of the legion that stands in Boer, in his absence, in the month of Tishri, the year 563".

  "The statue of Septimius Odenathus, the most illustrious consular, our lord, which was erected to him by the community of blacksmiths working in gold and silver, in his honor, in the month of Nisan 569."

  During its heyday, Palmyra was built up with luxurious public buildings, porticos, temples, private palaces and baths. There was also a theater in the city, surrounded by a semicircle (again) of columns, though not as large as in other Hellenistic cities, but built in the very center.

  At first glance, it seemed that the city, and first of all the "forests" of columns, were entirely made of marble. Marble was actually imported - from Egypt. It is still unknown how he (and granite) was delivered to Palmyra (perhaps they brought either a semi-finished product or a finished product). But the most popular building material in the city was local limestone-shell rock - a soft stone that successfully imitates marble. Its quarries were located twelve kilometers from the city. The method of extraction was also Egyptian: a wooden stake was driven into a natural crack or a drilled hole, which was abundantly watered. The stake swelled and tore off the block from the rock. Then the block was sawn and taken to the city. This limestone was golden in color and white with pink streaks. It was he who created the beauty of Palmyra that has not faded over the centuries.

  In fairness, it should be noted that the Palmyrians themselves spared no expense to decorate their native city. They decorated three entrances to the temple of the Sun with gold panels, there is no need to talk about the costs of silver, copper and bronze. Now it remains only to imagine what a stench stood from the endlessly arriving caravans and herds from all over the world in one of the most beautiful cities of antiquity! How the bases of the most beautiful collection of pillars in the world were polluted by stray dogs! One must think that epidemics here were frequent and general.

  But besides this, living Patmyra, there was another one - the Valley of the Tombs. Its uniqueness frightened already in the Middle Ages and gave rise to the most fantastic stories and legends. The tombs here were built of limestone. They represent a room, square or rectangular (4–5 x 5–9 meters), decorated with pilasters and a curved ceiling. Ancestral tombs often resembled small apartments. Inside there were 2-3 sarcophagi, the bas-reliefs of which carried information about the life of the owner. But the owner himself was not inside, he was buried in the dungeon. You will not find embalmed corpses here. Recently, during the construction of an oil pipeline, they came across a tomb located under the floor of a non-surviving ground structure. At the bottom was a crypt with three T-shaped passages. There were six rows of grave horizontal niches in the walls. Each was covered with a slab with a relief bust of the deceased. In total, three hundred and ninety graves were counted in this tomb. Big family? - it turned out not. The enterprising Palmyrenes calculated that building their own tomb was an expensive business, so they sold the "places" to other families.

  However, among the Palmyrans there were those who did not want to "crawl under the ground." They built for themselves and their families high stone towers of 3-4 floors (one even five floors) with balconies. The tombs have survived at a height of 18-20 meters and in many descend into the valley along the slopes of the mountains. The wind in them howls around the clock, instilling fear even in the most reckless. Embalmed corpses once rested here, and here you will not find Greek or Roman inscriptions, everything is in Aramaic. They are located above the front door:

  “The tomb was built at his own expense by Septimius Odenathus, the most illustrious senator, the son of Khairan, the son of Vahaballat, the son of Nazor, for himself and his sons and grandchildren forever, for the sake of eternal glory”,

  But usually the Roman names of the deceased are not mentioned on the pediments of the tombs.

  "Alas! This is the image of Zabda, son of Mokimo, his wife Baltikhan, daughter of Atafni.

  The images of the deceased - funerary sculptures - were sculpted in full plausibility and with maximum expressiveness. Earrings were even carved. There were also paintings made in the style of Fayum portraiture.

  The balcony was built in the middle of the height of the tower - with pilasters, columns and a roof. On it stood a couch, and on the couch lay a statue of the deceased.

  One of the most remarkable architectural tombs is the Yamlik Tower: its ceiling is as blue as the sky.

  The towers are the oldest buildings in Palmyra, and they have outlasted the city. They were not touched by the fateful fate of the state, which existed for at least two millennia, at the end experienced a time of loud glory, collapsed from overestimation of its capabilities and left a captivating image of a queen no less powerful than Cleopatra. Here's how it happened.

  Romans in the 3rd century BC e. found an oligarchic republic in Palmyra. They did not change anything, either not having the strength, or such a situation suited them. However, closer to the II century AD. e. Monarchist tendencies prevailed in the state: the Odenat family came to the fore.

  The first of the Odaenates received Roman citizenship during the reign of Septimius Severus (193-211). Naturally, he began to be called Septimius Odaenathus. The next Odaenathus is already a Roman consul. His son Septimius Khairan received (or appropriated) the title of "Head of Palmyra" ("Ras Tadmor"). The son of Hairan, the husband of Queen Zenobia, known simply as Odenat, was forced to become a politician and military leader, practically independent of Rome, for which the Romans themselves are primarily to blame. Their policy in the East was simply careless. Taking advantage of this, the Persian Shah from the Sassanid dynasty Shapur I occupied Armenia, northern Mesopotamia, Syria and part of Asia Minor. The emperor Valerian opposed him, but in the battle of Edesse, the Romans suffered a crushing defeat, and the 70,000th army was captured. Together with them, Valerian was captured, where he died some time later: there was no one to save or ransom him, the soldiers had already chosen another emperor for themselves.

  The head of Palmyra, Odenathus, managed to prevent the Persians from entering his territory, he even defeated several of Shapur's forward detachments. But Odenathus was not at all going to get involved in a serious struggle: the flesh of the flesh of the trading people, he most of all wanted peace in order to calmly trade with both the Romans and the Persians. Shapur did not seem to notice him at all: he slowly retreated to the Euphrates with rich booty. Odaenathus sent Shapur a letter of submission. He did not understand this:

  Who is this Odaenathus who dared to write to his master? If he dares to soften the punishment that awaits him, then let him prostrate before me with his hands tied behind his back. If he does not do this, let him know that I will destroy him, and his family, and his state!

  Shapur threw Odenath's gifts into the Euphrates.

  What was Odaenath to do! After the death of other Syrian kings, he turned out to be the only actual ruler of the Roman East and the remnants of the Roman legions. With the swords of these troops, he cleared the provinces of Asia and Syria from the Persians, and, having crossed the Euphrates, captured the Mesopotamian cities of Nisibis and Karr. Twice he approached the Persian capital. The Roman emperor Gallienus thanked Odaenathus and celebrated victorious triumphs for him.

  In 267, Odaenathus fell at the hands of his own nephew. Together with him, his eldest son Herod from his first marriage also died. Many felt that the hand of the nephew was directed by the second wife of Odaenath - Zenobia. Later, this version was indirectly confirmed, since through dynastic manipulations, the title of vice-emperor and "leader of the Romans in the East" was given to the young son of Odenathus and Zenobia - Vakha-ballat. Zenobia won the right of regency, and Palmyra, who owned Syria, part of Asia Minor, Northern Mesopotamia and Northern Arabia, had a queen.

  The Arabic name Zubaydat (literally "a woman with beautiful, thick and long hair") was converted into the Greek Zenobia, which means "second guest" and fully corresponded to the status of a second wife. Besides, Zenobia was not a native of Palmyra. She was born into a poor Bedouin family who roamed near the city. They say that at the time of the birth of Zenobia, all the planets were in the constellation of Cancer, and Saturn shone brightly in the sky. What does this mean? - it is better to consult with astrologers. She was also called the beautiful Phoenician, gypsy, Jewess. Zenobia herself, not very embarrassed, led her ROD from the queens Dido, Cleopatra and Semiramis. It remains a mystery how Zenobia got into the circle of those in power. Why did the rulers of Palmyra notice her?

  Contemporaries unanimously testify that she possessed an extraordinary power of mental influence, in other words, she was a witch. Or a psychic, which is the same thing.

  Many descriptions of Zenobia and her images have been preserved, including on bronze coins minted in Alexandria, which also obeyed the Palmyran queen. These coins are still found on the roadsides of Syrian roads. The Roman historian Trebellius Pollio described it thus:

  “She had all the qualities necessary for a great commander; cautiously, but with surprising perseverance, carried out her plans; strict with the soldiers, she did not spare herself in the dangers and hardships of war. Often at the head of her army she walked 3-4 miles. She was never seen in a stretcher, rarely in a chariot, and almost always on horseback. It combines military and political talents to varying degrees. She knew how to adapt to circumstances: the severity of a tyrant, the generosity and generosity of the best kings. Prudent in campaigns, she surrounded herself with Persian luxury. She went out to the people's assembly in purple clothes, showered with precious stones, with a helmet on her head.

  Slender, small in stature, with unusually shining eyes and dazzling teeth, swarthy in face and body, Zenobia conquered everyone with her beauty, whether on the Palmyra throne, on a military campaign or on immoderate libations with her soldiers. She was not only a warrior, but also a philosopher. She knew Greek and Coptic, compiled an abbreviated work on the history of the East, created in Palmyra the philosophical school of the Neoplatonists, headed by the Greek philosopher Longinus. Having built herself a summer residence in Yabrud, she hid the first Christians there in the caves. Her Bedouin relatives roamed there in the summer, and there she met a fortuneteller who predicted her future successes, the betrayal of her old friend and the end of her life - in gold, but in poverty and shame.

  The religious and philosophical hobbies of Zenobia gave her a reason to quarrel with Shapur I, who was under the influence of Kartir, the head of the Persian magicians. Zenobia gathered a huge army and began to fight with varying degrees of success against the Persians.

  Rome could no longer tolerate the strengthening of Palmyra in the East. Zenobia lost all sense of proportion. She officially declared independence from Rome, gave herself the title of "Augusta", and named her son Augustus. - the name of the emperor. At the end of 270, the heir of Gallienus - Emperor Aurelian - stopped negotiations with the envoys of Palmyra and returned Egypt, which Palmyra owned "illegally". Zenobia immediately reconciled with Shapur, but it was too late to change anything. In 271, a huge Roman army moved to the East - through Asia Minor, the Taurus Mountains and the Cilician Gates. On the banks of the Orontes, the Palmyrenes were defeated and retreated to Antioch. The Palmyra commander Zab-da spread a rumor in the city that the Roman army had been defeated. They found a man who looked like Aurelian, and led the mob through the streets for the amusement of the mob. Having thus gained time, the Palmyrenes passed through Antioch without hindrance. Aurelian followed them and soon approached the walls of Palmyra. The siege of the Fortified City began with large supplies of food and weapons. Aurelian reported to Rome: “I cannot describe to you, senator fathers, how many throwing machines, arrows and stones they have. There is not a single part of the wall that would not be reinforced with two or three ballistas.

  Aurelian - Zenobia. Your life will be saved. You can spend it in some place where I put you. Your jewels, silver, gold, silk, horses, camels, I will send to the Roman treasury. The laws and regulations of the Palmyrenes will be observed."

  Zenobia to Aurelian. No one else but you has dared to ask for what you demand. What can be obtained by war must be acquired by virtue. You are asking me to surrender, as if you are completely unaware that Queen Cleopatra chose to die rather than experience her greatness. The Persian allies we expect are not far away. The Saracens (Arabs) are on our side, just like the Armenians. Syrian robbers, O Aurelian, defeated your army. What if these units that we expect from all sides; will they come? So put on your arrogance, with which you now demand my surrender, as if you were a winner everywhere.

  But the allies were in no hurry. Palmyra would not have had enough strength for a long siege. The ghost of hunger loomed in the city, diseases began. On a dark night, Zenobia, taking with her her son Vahaoallat and several close associates, secretly fled from the city, deceiving the Roman outposts. On camels they got
  to the Persian border and were already boarding a boat to cross the Euphrates, when the pursuit overtook them. Zenobia was captured.

  Upon learning of this, the Palmyrenes brought Aurelian the keys to the city. The Emperor treated Zenobia and Wahaballat mercifully. The city and the townspeople also did not suffer. A trial was appointed over Zenobia's associates and her military leaders. Many were executed, including the philosopher Longinus. He was betrayed by Zenobia herself: she refused the authorship of the insulting letter to Aurelian, stating that it was written by a philosopher. So the first prediction of the fortune teller came true.

  Aurelian rushed to Rome, he was impatient to celebrate the triumph. But a few months after Aurelian left Asia with his captive, the Palmyrenes revolted and killed the Roman garrison. This time, Aurelian, returning with an army, gave the order to destroy the city. This happened in 272. Aurelian destroyed the communal structure of Palmyra, completely robbed the temple of the Sun, transferring all the valuable decorations to the new temple of the Sun, which he was building in Rome.

  Zenobia, having lost her kingdom, survived its ruin and death, did not commit suicide, like her "relative" Cleopatra, although she threatened in a letter. But after all, Longinus wrote the letter, and he has long been in Hades.

  Once again, her beauty flashed brightly during the triumphal procession, when she, a prisoner, entangled in golden chains, walked barefoot in front of a line of wagons with her own treasures, with her hair loose and cast such glances at the crowd that many could not bear them and turned away. She spent the rest of her life in Rome, at the villa of her new husband, a Roman senator.

  The destroyed Palmyra was no longer resurrected. Merchants sent their caravans along other roads. Centuries have passed. The sands of the desert covered the blooming oasis: no one fought them. The last inhabitants of Palmyra - the Arabs - huddled in adobe huts in the courtyard of the Temple of the Sun. But these houses, too, eventually became empty. Instantly and as if from nowhere, the power that appeared under the Syrian sky just as suddenly crumbled. "Isn't this a dream"?

  The city that rose from the sand

  The ancient city will survive a new invasion of barbarians, who have repeatedly sought to wipe it off the face
  earth. Actually, thanks to the barbarians, Palmyra has survived to this day.

  There are many amazing paradoxes in history: for example, Pompeii was preserved for us by volcanic lava, and Palmyra - by human oblivion. The city was abandoned by people and forgotten for many centuries.
  
  This happened after the city was captured by Arab conquerors in the 7th century, who
  expelled a small local population, and founded a fortress on the ruins of ancient temples,
  quickly fallen into disrepair. Left at the mercy of winds, sands and time, grandiose
  structures stood still until the 11th century, when a devastating earthquake in 1089
  completed the destruction of Palmyra, leaving only a pile of ruins on the outskirts of the oasis.

  The remains of the magnificent capital of antiquity were buried under the sands during the frequent
  sandstorms, and those buildings that remained on the surface served as building material
  for the huts of local residents. Much of what was of interest from the point of view of art,
  was plundered and transported to large cities, and from there to the museums of world capitals.
  When the Spanish rabbi Benjamin reached Palmyra in the 12th century, he saw only the Arabic
  a village located in the huge courtyard of the temple of the god Bel.

  The second discovery of Palmyra occurred at the beginning of the 17th century, when he stumbled upon the ancient ruins
  Italian traveler Pietro della Balle. About 1692 the English comes here
  Pastor Halifax. He was the first to copy three Palmyrene inscriptions, but to read the Palmyrene
  he failed to write.

  Only 70 years later, English travelers and scientists reached Palmyra Robert
  Wood (Robert Wood) and James Dawkins (James Dawkins). They made the first description of the ruins
  Palmyra, made measurements and sketches, which subsequently made a great impression
  on contemporaries.

  Comparing these drawings with later photographs, we can see what was lost and
  plundered by the Arabs, and what has been restored in our time.

  Thanks to Wood and Dawkins, Palmyra rose to prominence.
  Russian traveler A.A. Rafalovich wrote in his
  "Travel notes about Syria and Palestine 1844 - 1847":
  “They (Bedouins) tell with pride and reverence that among their sandy steppes stand
  remnants of the great city of Tadmor, erected by the wise Solomon, whom they recognize
  for their ancient king."

  Bedouin reverence, however, did not prevent further looting of the ruins.

  In photographs taken in 1880, Palmyra appears somewhat more plucked,
  than in the drawings of the XVIII century.

  After the First World War, Palmyra becomes one of the most relevant
  and attractive problems for archaeologists.

  Its architecture and art are a kind of artistic phenomenon in the culture of the Roman
  empire, and the monuments and inscriptions discovered as a result of archaeological excavations - priceless
  historical documents. It was in Palmyra that for the first time in history there was a peaceful mixing
  cultural values ​​of the East with the ideology of the West. As a result, a new
  a culture striking in its richness and brilliance, which, being neither eastern nor western,
  actually belongs to both of them.

  The Palmyrene religion, for example, is a conglomeration of various cults of the ancient East mixed with
  elements of Western religions, namely Greek and Roman. Bel and Baalshamin, the main deities
  Palmyra has much in common with Zeus, and the goddess Allat has much in common with Athena. Figures on Palmyra
  sculptures are dressed in oriental, Parthian attire, and their eyes are outlined in the manner of Assyrian
  sculptural images. But the composition, and above all the decorative elements, go back to
  traditional ornamentation typical of Greek and Roman art.

  Reconstruction of the Temple of Bel

  Altar of Baalshamin from Palmyra. On the left is the god Malakbel, on the right is Aglibol.

  Altar of the god Bel (he sits on the right). Standing: Yaribol, Aglibol and Baalshamin.

  Goddess Alatat

  Temple remains

  Partially excavated, partly protruding from the sands of the desert and gravel, long
  colonnades; complex of the sanctuary of Bela, Roman baths, agora, small but well preserved
  theatre; esplanade of the western part of the city (the so-called camp of Diocletian). All this is surrounded
  well-preserved fortification walls.

  In Arabic, Palmyra is called Tadmor - this is the name in all likelihood of a pre-Semitic
  origin. The first surviving mention of Tadmor, found on cuneiform
  Assyrian tiles found at Kul Tepe in Cappadocia date back to the beginning of the second millennium
  BC. In the XVIII century BC. e. Tadmor is mentioned on two tablets found in Mari
  - an area located on the right bank of the Euphrates, where the French have been excavating for many years
  under the guidance of prof. A. Parro. The city of Tadmor is also mentioned in the annals of Tiglathpalasar,
  dating back to the beginning of the 11th century BC. e. In the biblical "Book of Kings", which arose in the VI century BC
  n. e. where Solomon's building work is referred to, among the various localities,
  also Tamar in the desert; in a similar passage in the Book of Chronicles, referring to the 3rd century BC
  n. e., instead of Tamar, the name Tadmor is already used.

  What is the origin of the name "Palmyra", found already in the 1st century AD? e.? This title
  officially used in the Greco-Roman period arose in all likelihood on the basis of
  false etymology, identifying the pre-Semitic word Tadmor with the Semitic word Tamar,
  meaning date palm.

  Urban-type settlements in this desert oasis undoubtedly existed already in the second
  millennium BC. e., and flint tools and products found in the nearby desert
  testify to the presence of settlements in the area as early as the Stone Age. hitting here
  the somewhat saline spring of Efka and the sulphurous waters favored the early settlement of the oasis.
  The earliest settlements on the territory of Palmyra have not yet been explored by archaeologists,
  but starting from the 1st century AD, Palmyra was already a large trading center.

  Here was compiled the world's first set of detailed customs regulations - so
  called the Palmyra Tariff. The inscription was made in the Palmyrene language - a mixture of Greek
  and Aramaic languages. This code was discovered and deciphered by our compatriot Professor
  St. Petersburg University S.S. Abamelek-Lazarev.

  Slaves and female slaves from Egypt and Asia Minor were sold here, spices were brought from India and Arabia
  and aromatic substances, there was a constant demand for wine, salt, clothing, harness, shoes ... High
  purple-dyed wool was also valued: merchants, praising their goods, unanimously claimed that
  compared to Palmyra, other purple fabrics look faded, as if they were sprinkled
  ashes.

  Under the arches of the Arc de Triomphe there was always a multilingual rumble, but they called it the Triumphal
  Europeans. In their view, arches and gates have always been placed to glorify the glorious
  military victories or in honor of great commanders. But the Palmyran architects decided in this case
  another task: the double gates of the Arc de Triomphe were set at an angle and, as it were,
  concealed the break in the street, straightened it.

  These monumental gates of basalt, granite and marble were erected around the year 200.
  A huge 20-meter arch rests on double columns, and two small arches at the edges lead
  to the side streets. The main trade thoroughfare of Palmyra was the street of the Great Colonnades,
  crossed the city from end to end. Its entire length (more than 1 km) stretched four rows
  17-meter columns, behind which were residential buildings, warehouses and shops.

  Away from the street of the Great Colonnades was a theater built in the busiest quarter
  Palmyra. On the right side, it adjoined the Senate building: the theater and the Senate were located on
  a square square surrounded by porticos in the Ionic style. The porticos were adorned with statues
  Roman and Palmyrene commanders, officials and other famous people of the city.

  Palmyra, which retained its independence for a long time, became a vassal of Rome in the early years of the Empire. On
  At that time, Palmyra archers began to enter military service in the Roman troops, of which
  starting from the time of Trajan, separate detachments were formed. Hadrian around 129 personally visited
  the city, which at that time was already at the height of its wealth and splendor. Emperor Hadrian
  recognizes the right of Palmyra to be a free city within the Roman Empire, the right of which the city
  used until the reign of Septimius Severus.

  In 212, during the reign of the Severan dynasty, Palmyra officially becomes Roman.
  province and remains so until 260, when the Persian king Shapur defeated the legions of the emperor
  Valerian, and captured him himself. Persian troops approached the very walls of Palmyra,
  and then the Romans turned to the Palmyra ruler Odaenathus with a plea for help. And it happened
  something that will later cause bewildered admiration of chroniclers and historians: Odaenathus, having collected
  best Palmyrene archers, defeated the Persian army.

  Odenath

  Having recovered from the defeat, the Persians again opposed the Romans, and again the decisive role in the defeat
  enemy belonged to the Palmyrenes. In gratitude, the Roman emperor appointed Odenathus vice-
  emperor of the East - the second person in the Roman Empire. However, the ruler of Palmyra understood
  that any attempt to exalt himself would cause fear and anger in Rome. However, regardless
  from his will and Palmyra, and he himself gained more and more influence in the Middle East. AND
  indeed, the time had come when Rome began to fear her ally. Strip Odaenathus of the title
  and the army had nothing to do - he remained faithful to the oath, Rome no longer dared to declare him an enemy.
  And then Rome resorted, as happens very often, to a tried and tested remedy -
  murder. The Roman authorities of the country of Suri in 267 invited Odaenathus to discuss the current
  cases to Emessa and there they killed him along with his eldest son Herodian.

  Power in the country passed to his widow, Queen Zenobia (or Zenobia). The Romans were firmly convinced
  that the troops of Palmyra would refuse to go into battle under the command of a woman. And they miscalculated a lot!
  The Palmyrene chiefs swore allegiance to Zenobia, and the army that had gone over to her side soon
  seized Syria, Palestine, Egypt, and in the north reached the Bosporus and Dardanelles.

  Zenobia's military victories alarmed Rome, and the emperor Aurelian decided to move against her army.
  After the defeat at Emessa, Zenobia decided to sit out in Palmyra, but endure a long siege
  failed. It only remained to take all the wealth out of the city and retreat beyond the Euphrates, and there
  save the width of the river and the accuracy of the famous archers of Palmyra. But the emperor's cavalry
  Aurelian followed close behind, and Zenobia was taken prisoner near the river. In the autumn of 272, i.e.
  almost two years after Zenobia's armed uprising against Rome, Palmyra was taken
  troops of Aurelian, who personally led the siege of the city.

  "Farewell view of Queen Zenobia on Palmyra". Painting by Herbert Schmalz.

  What was the fate of the educated and ambitious queen, who was also famous for her beauty?
  According to ancient sources, Zenobia was taken to Rome in chains - the captive queen must
  was to give splendor to the triumph of Aurelian in the capital of the empire.

  An ancient stele with an inscription dedicated to Zenobia.

  The siege of Palmyra, and then the second capture of the city after the uprising raised by the inhabitants of Palmyra
  in 273, led to serious destruction of the city. Zenobia herself for expansion and strengthening
  fortifications ordered to dismantle some of the tombs and use their blocks to strengthen
  city ​​walls; part of the tombs located in the immediate vicinity of Palmyra was destroyed
  soldiers of Aurelian, standing under the walls of the city.

  In honor of the triumph, Emperor Aurelian ordered the construction of a grandiose palace in the city (reconstruction).

  All that remains of the emperor's palace.

  The general reconstruction of some quarters and individual buildings of Palmyra was started on
  at the turn of the III and IV centuries. under the emperor Diocletian. During the construction of new buildings and partial
  restoration of the old ones, stone blocks and tombstones from necropolises were used at that time
  surrounding Palmyra. As we can see, the loss of independence, the defeat of the troops of Queen Zenobia and
  the capture of the city by Aurelian was by no means the final disaster for either the inhabitants of Palmyra,
  nor for the development of urban construction. In Byzantine times, Palmyra, as well as the whole
  The Eastern Empire is going through periods of prosperity and decline. During the reign of Arcadius, ca.
  400, Palmyra regains some importance as the seat of the legion, and
  150 years later, under Justinian, a partial restoration of the fortress walls was carried out,
  built under Zenobia. At the same time, one of the Christian basilicas was being built in the city.

  After the Romans, the Arabs came here, and the city surrendered without resistance to the troops of Khaled ibya-al-Walid,
  one of the commanders of the first Caliph Abu Bekr. The inhabitants were expelled. However, they are already
  for a long time they did not live in the city, but huddled behind the walls of the sanctuary of the god Bel, having stuck a lot of
  dark and cramped adobe shacks. Then the Turks came here for many years, who themselves
  they did not want to know anything about the culture of the peoples subject to them, and others were not allowed to study it.
  No one cared about the brilliant history of the dying city, and numerous earthquakes
  completed the destruction of the surviving temples, palaces and colonnades, and the advancing sands of the Syrian
  the deserts finally swallowed up the ruins of Palmyra.

  outskirts of Palmyra. Arabic buildings are visible.

  Arab conquerors, whose culture was completely alien to the Roman architecture
  Palmyra, adapt city buildings, colonnades and temples for defense and their own
  utilitarian purposes. For example, under the Seljuks, a magnificent citadel was rebuilt
  complex of the sanctuary of Bela.

  Arabian Palmyra

  Russian archaeologist B.V. Farmakovsky, who took part in the restoration of Palmyra, wrote:
  “The majestic monuments of art of ancient Palmyra have long attracted the attention of scientists
  and beauty lovers. Cut off from the world by a vast waterless desert and located
  among a forest of palm trees in a distant, luxurious oasis, the ruins of Palmyra ... always excited
  imagination, always seemed to be something fabulously magnificent ... Ancient Palmyra was one
  of the outstanding cultural centers in the East. And here was a society whose art
  was the essential need of life, which loved and bowed before its creators.

  Palmyra at dawn

  After members of the Islamic State terrorist group known for their
  barbaric attitude to objects of culture and art, entered Palmyra, a representative
  UNESCO said hundreds of valuable statues were safely evacuated to safety.
  However, scientists are very concerned about the fate of museums, massive sarcophagi
  and large sculptures that cannot be taken out..

  The first mention of this city dates back to 900 BC. Palmyra was ruled by the most famous kings of antiquity to this day. There were uprisings, the collapse of empires, intrigues and many other significant historical processes.

  The architecture of ancient times has survived to this day and is truly unique. However, in 2015, the remains of the ancient city were destroyed by Islamic State terrorists.

  ancient times

  The antiquity of the city can be estimated at least by the fact that the Bible contains a description of such a fortress as Palmyra. Syria at that time was not a single state. Various kings and tribes ruled over its territory. A well-known biblical character - King Solomon - decided to found Tadmor (the former name) as a fortress to protect against Aramean raids. The place was chosen at the crossroads of trade routes. But soon after the construction, the city was almost completely destroyed as a result of the campaign of Nuavuhodnosor. But the extremely favorable location prompted the new owners to rebuild the settlement. Since then, rich merchants and nobles have constantly arrived here. In a short time, from a village in the desert, Palmyra turned into a kingdom.

  

  Rumors of untold riches spread even throughout Europe. I myself learned that near the Euphrates valley there is an indescribably beautiful city of Palmyra. Syria at that time was partly controlled by the Parthians, who were at war with Rome. Therefore, the imperial troops decided to take the city, but these attempts did not lead to success. A few years later, the commander from the Antonin dynasty nevertheless took Tadmor. Since then, the city and its environs have become a Roman colony. But local rulers were given extended rights that were not in other conquered lands.

  greatest power

  The struggle for these territories was much wider than control over the province of Palmyra. Syria is a third of the desert, which is impossible to inhabit. Therefore, control over this area depended on the capture of several stronghold nodes. Whoever controlled the region between the sea and the Euphrates valley had influence over the entire desert. Since the city was very far from the central Roman lands, there were often uprisings against the capital. One way or another, Palmyra has always remained a relatively independent province, following the example of Greek city-states. The peak of power came during the reign of Queen Zenobia. Merchants from all over the Middle East traveled to Tamdor. Luxurious temples and palaces were erected. Therefore, Zenobia decided to completely get rid of Roman oppression. However, Aurelian, the Roman emperor, reacted quickly enough and went with the army to distant frontiers. As a result, the Romans conquered Palmyra, and the queen was captured. Since then, the decline of one of the most beautiful cities of antiquity begins.

  Sunset

  After the overthrow of Zenobia, the city still remained under the scrutiny of the Roman emperors. Some of them tried to rebuild and restore the original appearance of Palmyra. However, their attempts were never successful. As a result, in the 8th century AD, an Arab raid took place, as a result of which Palmyra was again devastated.

  

  After that, only a small settlement remained from the mighty province. However, most of the monuments have survived, having survived to this day and until 2015 were under the protection of UNESCO. Syria - Palmyra, which is known to the whole world, especially - was a real Mecca for tourists. However, everything has changed.

  Palmyra: a city in Syria today

  Since 2012, a bloody civil war has been going on in Syria. By 2016, it is still not over and more and more parties are taking part in it. In the spring of 2015, Palmyra became the scene of hostilities. Like thousands of years ago, this province is the nodal point for desert control. There is a strategically important route to Deir ez-Zor. It was under the control of the government troops of Bashar al-Assad. Even in winter, militants of the terrorist organization of Iraq and the Levant infiltrated the province of Tamdor. For several months they tried to take the city, but to no avail.

  Destruction

  However, at the end of spring, when the main forces of government troops were busy in other directions, the militants launched a massive offensive against Palmyra. After a week of fierce fighting, ISIS still managed to take the city and its environs. This was followed by a series of brutal massacres. The militants began to destroy the ancient monuments of architecture. In addition, the terrorists allowed the so-called "black archaeologists" to work in the city. They resell the finds they find on the black market for a lot of money. Those monuments that are not transportable are destroyed.

  

  Satellite images confirm that at the moment almost all the buildings on the site where the city of Palmyra used to be have been wiped off the face of the earth. Syria is still in a state of armed conflict, so it is not known whether this terrible war will leave any monuments for our descendants.

  The Islamist ISIS movement continues to wreak havoc in the Middle East. The magnificent ruins of the priceless historical heritage of Ancient Rome in Syria and the Levant are under the threat of extinction.

  After destroying the treasures of the last surviving Babylonian cities of Nineveh, Hatra and Nimrud, ISIS is trying to destroy the architectural monuments of Palmyra in Syria.

  Palmyra - the ancient city of Syria with a rich history

  A few reasons why Palmyra is a special historical site included in the UNESCO World Heritage List.

  1. Palmyra was a major trading center of the Greco-Roman period

  For several centuries, Fort Palmyra in Syria served as an important commercial point in the Middle East. The ancient city gained world fame when the Romans mastered the area.

  A settlement in the middle of the desert, Palmyra had an ideal geographical location. The routes of merchants between the West and Parthia in the East passed through the city.
  A huge number of caravans flocked to Palmyra, the markets were filled with a variety of goods: from spices to slaves, incense and ivory. The taxes collected for stopping in the city went to the development and construction of Palmyra, as a result of which the city became incredibly wealthy.

  2. The ruler of the ancient city of Palmyra was a woman

  The ancient city was ruled by a woman for a long time. Zenobia, queen of Palmyra, became the most famous ruler of the Syrian city. Her fame reached Rome. She tried to oppose a powerful empire and expand the sphere of influence of civilization. As a result, the attempts were unsuccessful, but her name was sung for several more centuries.

  Even her sworn enemy, the Roman emperor Aurelian, admitted in the Historia Augusta that the queen of Palmyra was a worthy opponent.

  When Aurelian demanded Xenovia's surrender, she replied that she would rather die like the one she considered her ancestor.

  
  

  3. Palmyra: the history of the city and the attempts to conquer Mark Antony

  The people of Palmyra were well aware of the news of Rome and the enemies of the empire - Parthia. Any state could invade the city.

  In 41 BC , being in a relationship with Cleopatra, he decided to plunder the richest settlement on earth - Palmyra. He sent cavalry to plunder a city near Euraphat, located on the border between the Romans and the Parthians.

  In fact, it is believed that Antony simply wanted to take revenge on Palmyra, who occupies a neutral position. Antony dreamed of showing off his booty to his friends. Residents took action to protect their lives. They moved the property across the river and were ready to fire on the attackers. Many of them were good archers.

  As a result, Antony's army did not find anything in the city and, having not met a single enemy, returned empty-handed, writes Appian.

  Historical value of the ruins of Palmyra

  The architectural monuments of the city have been perfectly preserved over the centuries. The ruins can tell a lot about the life of the inhabitants of the ancient settlement.

  The sculptures of Palmyra are somewhat different in style from the Roman ones. The combination of burial reliefs on stone and the fusion with the culture of the Roman Empire led to the creation of especially beautiful bas-reliefs.

  Among the wonders of the art of Palmyra of Emperor Hadrian, the temple of the goddess Allat, the temple of Baal-Shamin and the ruins of buildings where various peoples of the ancient world left historical traces.