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Caroline Wright Cynthia. You can read the book online and download the book in fb2, txt, html, epub format. No one but you could do this - steal the plan and not get caught. Alex was aware that, despite all the horrors of the war, his work had an undeniable charm. He wandered the swamps of South Carolina with Francis Morion, sailed as a captain on a privateer ship, and drank cognac with Washington and Lafayette on the banks of the Hudson. Wright Cynthia. Caroline. Abstract of the book, opinions and ratings of readers, covers of publications. Reader reviews of the book “Carolina” by Cynthia Wright: voin: I read it a long time ago.

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Alex was aware that, despite all the horrors of the war, his work had an undeniable charm. He wandered the swamps of South Carolina with Francis Morion, sailed as a captain on a privateer ship, and drank cognac with Washington and Lafayette on the banks of the Hudson.

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The hanging linear-angular course С-е-k-m (Fig. 13.1) rests on the original

point C with known coordinates and for it the initial directional angle α ce is determined only at the beginning of the stroke.

A free linear-angular stroke has no starting points and initial directional angles either at the beginning or at the end of the stroke.

According to the accuracy of measuring horizontal angles and distances, linear-angular moves are divided into two large groups: theodolite passages and polygon-

metric moves.

IN theodolite passages horizontal angles are measured with an error of no more than 30"; the relative error in measuring distances mS/S ranges from

1/1000 to 1/3000.

IN polygonometric moves horizontal angles are measured with an error of 0.4" to 10", and the relative error in measuring distances mS/S is

ranges from 1/5000 to 1/300,000.

According to the accuracy of measurements, polygonometric moves are divided into two categories and 4 classes, discussed earlier.

13.2. Linking linear-angular moves

By referencing an open linear-angular traverse we mean the combination of its starting and ending points with the starting points of the geodetic network, the coordinates of which are known. At the starting points, the angles are measured between the direction with a known directional angle (αstart and αend) and the first (last) side of the stroke; these angles are called adjacent angles.

In addition to these standard situations, there are cases when a linear-angular move begins or ends at a point with unknown coordinates.

tami. In such cases, the additional task of determining the coordinates of this point arises. The easiest way to determine the coordinates of one point is geodetic intersections; if there are several known points near the determined point, then by performing k angular and (or) linear measurements (k > 2), you can calculate the required coordinates using standard algorithms. If this is not possible, then special cases of binding arise; Let's look at some of them.

Transferring coordinates from the top of the sign to the ground. In Fig. 13.3 clause P – defines

divisible, and points T 1, T 2, T 3 are the original ones with known coordinates. The three starting points can only be used as sighting targets. From point P, two angles are measured using the reverse angle resection program, but three points and two angles are not enough to fully control the solution of the problem. In addition, if the distance between points P and T1 is small, the intersection angle will be excessively small and the intersection accuracy will be low. To ensure the reliability of the task, two time points A 1 and A 2 are set and distances b 1, b 2 and angles β1, β2, β3, β4 are measured. β5, β6.

Rice. 13.3. Scheme for bringing the coordinates of a point to the ground

Thus, the total number of measurements is 8, and the number of unknowns is 6 (coordinates of three points). This geodetic construction must be processed using the least squares method (LSM), but an approximate, fairly accurate solution can be obtained using the final formulas given below. The following calculations are made:

∙ calculating the distance s (s = T 1 P ) twice: from triangles PA 1 T 1 and PA 2 T2 and then the average of the two:

S = 0.5 [(b 1 sinβ5 ) / sin(β1 + β5 )] + [(b 2 sinβ6 ) / sin(β2 + β6 )] . (13.1)

∙ solution of the inverse geodetic problem between points T 1 and T 2 (calculation

α12 , L 1 )

and T 1 and T 3 (calculation of α13 and L 2 ); (the solution is known and is not given here) ∙ calculating the angles µ1 and µ2 from triangles PT 2 T 1 and PT 3 T 1:

∙ calculation of angles λ1 and λ2 from triangles PT 2T 1 and PT 3T 1:

∙ calculation of the directional angle of the line T 1P:

α = 0.5 [(α12 – A 1 ) + (α13 + A 2 )];

∙ solution of a direct geodetic problem from point T to point P:

X P = X A + S cos α;

Y P = Y A + S sin α.

13.3. Linking linear-angular travel to wall marks

Wall marks are laid in the ground floor or in the wall of a permanent building; their designs vary and are shown in the relevant sections of educational and technical literature. Laying out wall marks and determining their coordinates is carried out when creating geodetic networks in populated areas and industrial enterprises; in the future, these marks play the role of reference points in subsequent geodetic constructions.

The diagram for linking point P of the move to two marks A and B is shown in Fig. 13.4, a. On line AB, the segments AP, PB and AB = S are measured using a tape measure, then the coordinates of point P are found from the solution of a direct geodetic problem using

lowering the α-directional angle of direction AB.

Rice. 13.4. Linking points of linear-angular movement to wall marks

The diagram for linking point P of the move to three marks A, B, C is shown in Fig. 13.4, b. Using a tape measure, the distances S 1, S 2, S 3 are measured and multiple linear intersections are solved using the formulas given in the technical and educational literature.

As a reference direction with a known directional angle, you can use either the direction to one of the wall marks, or the direction to some other point with known coordinates.

In addition to the notch method, when linking passages to wall marks, the polar method and the reduction method, also discussed in the technical and educational literature, are also used.

13.4. The concept of a system of linear-angular moves

A set of linear-angular moves that have common points is called a system of moves; A nodal point is a point at which at least three moves converge. As for an individual linear-angular stroke, a strict and simplified measurement processing is used for the system of strokes; Let's consider simplified processing using the example of a system of three linear-angular moves with one nodal point (Fig. 13.5). Each move is based on a starting point with known coordinates; at each starting point there is a direction with a known directional angle.

One side of any move passing through a nodal point is taken as the nodal direction (for example, side 4 - 7) and its directional angle is calculated for each move separately, starting from the initial directional angle in the move. In the case of measuring left along angles β, three values ​​of the directional angle of the nodal direction α4-7 are obtained:

and calculate the average weight value of the three, and the number 1 / n i is taken as the mathematical weight of an individual value, where n i is the number of angles in the course from the initial direction to the nodal direction (in Fig. 13.5 n 1 = 4, n 2 = 3, n 3 = 5):

Considering the nodal direction as the initial one and knowing its directional angle, calculate the angular discrepancies in each stroke separately and introduce corrections to the

A great Russian scientist, he was nominated several times for the Nobel Prize, devoted his life to revealing the secrets of the human brain, treated people with hypnosis, studied telepathy and crowd psychology.

Mysticism and materialism

Vladimir Bekhterev's experiments with hypnosis were perceived ambiguously by his contemporaries, especially the scientific community. At the end of the 19th century, there was a skeptical attitude towards hypnosis: it was considered almost quackery and mysticism. Bekhterev proved: this mysticism can be used in an exclusively applied way. Vladimir Mikhailovich sent carts through the streets of the city, collecting drunkards of the capital and delivering them to the scientist, and then conducted sessions of mass treatment of alcoholism using hypnosis. Only then, thanks to the incredible results of treatment, will hypnosis be recognized as an official method of treatment.

Brain map

Bekhterev approached the issue of studying the brain with the enthusiasm inherent in the pioneers of the era of the Great Geographical Discoveries. In those days, the brain was the real Terra Incognita. Based on a series of experiments, Bekhterev created a method that makes it possible to thoroughly study the paths of nerve fibers and cells. Thousands of the thinnest layers of frozen brain were attached one by one under a glass microscope, and detailed sketches were made from them, which were used to create a “brain atlas.” One of the creators of such atlases, the German professor Kopsch, said: “Only two people know perfectly the structure of the brain - God and Bekhterev.”

Parapsychology

In 1918, Bekhterev created an institute for brain research. Under him, the scientist creates a parapsychology laboratory, the main task of which was to study mind reading at a distance. Bekhterev was absolutely convinced of the materiality of thought and practical telepathy. To solve the problems of the world revolution, a group of scientists is not only thoroughly studying neurobiological reactions, but is also trying to read the language of Shambhala, and is planning a trip to the Himalayas as part of Roerich’s expedition.

Analysis of the communication problem

Issues of communication, mutual mental influence of people on each other occupy one of the central places in the socio-psychological theory and collective experiment of V. M. Bekhterev. Bekhterev considered the social role and functions of communication using the example of specific types of communication: imitation and suggestion. “If it weren’t for imitation,” he wrote, “there could be no personality as a social individual, and yet imitation draws its main material from communication with oneself.”
similar, between whom, thanks to cooperation, a kind of mutual induction and mutual suggestion develops." Bekhterev was one of the first scientists to seriously study the psychology of the collective person and the psychology of the crowd.

Child psychology

The tireless scientist even involved his children in experiments. It is thanks to his curiosity that modern scientists have knowledge about the psychology inherent in the infant period of human maturation. In his article “The Initial Evolution of Children’s Drawings in Objective Study,” Bekhterev analyzes the drawings of “girl M,” who is actually his fifth child, his beloved daughter Masha. However, interest in the drawings soon faded, leaving the door ajar to an untapped field of information, which was now provided to followers. The new and unknown always distracted the scientist from what had already been started and partially mastered. Bekhterev opened the doors.

Experiments with animals

V. M. Bekhterev with the help of trainer V.L. Durova conducted about 1278 experiments of mentally instilling information into dogs. Of these, 696 were considered successful, and then, according to the experimenters, solely because of incorrectly composed tasks. Processing of the material showed that “the dog’s answers were not a matter of chance, but depended on the influence of the experimenter on it.” This is how V.M. described it. Bekhterev's third experiment, when a dog named Pikki had to jump up on a round chair and hit the right side of the piano keyboard with his paw. “And here is the dog Pikki in front of Durov. He looks intently into her eyes and covers her muzzle with his palms for a while. Several seconds pass, during which Pikki remains motionless, but being released, he quickly rushes to the piano, jumps up on a round chair, and from the blow of his paw on the right side of the keyboard, several treble notes are heard.”

Unconscious telepathy

Bekhterev argued that the transmission and reading of information through the brain, this amazing ability called telepathy, can be realized without the knowledge of the suggestor and transmitter. Numerous experiments on the transmission of thoughts at a distance were perceived in two ways. It was as a result of the latest experiments that Bekhterev continued further work “under the gun of the NKVD.” The possibilities of instilling information in a person that aroused Vladimir Mikhailovich’s interest were much more serious than similar experiments with animals and, according to contemporaries, were interpreted by many as an attempt to create psychotronic weapons of mass destruction.

By the way...

Academician Bekhterev once noted that the great happiness of dying while maintaining reason on the roads of life will be given to only 20% of people. The rest will turn into angry or naive senile people in old age and become ballast on the shoulders of their own grandchildren and adult children. 80% is significantly more than the number of those who are destined to develop cancer, Parkinson's disease or suffer from brittle bones in old age. To enter the lucky 20% in the future, it is important to start now.

Over the years, almost everyone begins to become lazy. We work hard in our youth so that we can rest in our old age. However, the more we calm down and relax, the more harm we do to ourselves. The level of requests comes down to a banal set: “eat well - get plenty of sleep.” Intellectual work is limited to solving crossword puzzles. The level of demands and claims to life and to others increases, the burden of the past weighs down. Irritation from not understanding something results in rejection of reality. Memory and thinking abilities suffer. Gradually, a person moves away from the real world, creating his own, often cruel and hostile, painful fantasy world.

Dementia never comes suddenly. It progresses over the years, acquiring more and more power over a person. What is now just a prerequisite may in the future become fertile ground for the germs of dementia. Most of all, it threatens those who have lived their lives without changing their attitudes. Traits such as excessive adherence to principles, perseverance and conservatism are more likely to lead to dementia in old age than flexibility, the ability to quickly change decisions, and emotionality. “The main thing, guys, is not to grow old in your heart!”

Here are some indirect signs indicating that it is worth upgrading your brain.

1. You have become sensitive to criticism, while you yourself criticize others too often.

2. You don't want to learn new things. You would rather agree to have your old mobile phone repaired than understand the instructions for the new model.

3. You often say: “But before,” that is, you remember and are nostalgic for the old days.

4. You are ready to enthusiastically talk about something, despite the boredom in the eyes of your interlocutor. It doesn’t matter that he will fall asleep now, the main thing is that what you are talking about is interesting to you.

5. You find it difficult to concentrate when you start reading serious or scientific literature. Poor understanding and memory of what you read. You can read half a book today and forget the beginning tomorrow.

6. You began to talk about issues in which you were never knowledgeable. For example, about politics, economics, poetry or figure skating. Moreover, it seems to you that you have such a good command of the issue that you could start running the state right tomorrow, become a professional literary critic or sports judge.

7. Of two films - a work by a cult director and a popular novella/detective - you choose the second. Why strain yourself once again? You don’t understand at all what interesting someone finds in these cult directors.

8. You believe that others should adapt to you, and not vice versa.

9. Much in your life is accompanied by rituals. For example, you cannot drink your morning coffee from any mug other than your favorite one without first feeding the cat and flipping through the morning newspaper. Losing even one element would knock you out for the whole day.

10. At times you notice that you tyrannize those around you with some of your actions, and you do this without malicious intent, but simply because you think that it is more correct.

Recommendations for brain development

Note that the brightest people, who retain their intelligence into old age, as a rule, are people of science and art. Due to their duty, they have to strain their memory and perform daily mental work. They always keep their finger on the pulse of modern life, tracking fashion trends and even being ahead of them in some ways. This “production necessity” is a guarantee of happy, reasonable longevity.

1. Every two to three years, start learning something. You don't have to go to college and get a third or even fourth education. You can take a short-term training course or learn a completely new profession. You can start eating foods that you haven’t eaten before and learn new tastes.

2. Surround yourself with young people. From them you can always pick up all sorts of useful things that will help you always stay modern. Play with children, they can teach you a lot that you don’t even know about.

3. If you haven’t learned anything new for a long time, maybe you just haven’t been looking? Look around, how many new and interesting things are happening where you live.

4. From time to time, solve intellectual problems and take all kinds of subject tests.

5. Learn foreign languages, even if you don’t speak them. The need to regularly memorize new words will help train your memory.

6. Grow not only upward, but also deeper! Get out your old textbooks and periodically review your school and university curriculum.

7. Play sports! Regular physical activity before and after gray hair really saves you from dementia.

8. Train your memory more often, forcing yourself to remember poems that you once knew by heart, dance steps, programs that you learned at the institute, phone numbers of old friends and much more - everything you can remember.

9. Break up habits and rituals. The more the next day differs from the previous one, the less likely it is that you will become “smoky” and develop dementia. Drive to work on different streets, give up the habit of ordering the same dishes, do something you have never been able to do before.

10. Give more freedom to others and do as much as possible yourself. The more spontaneity, the more creativity. The more creativity, the longer you will retain your mind and intelligence!

2.2.2. Linear-angular stroke

2.2.2.1 Classification of linear-angular strokes

Various methods can be used to determine the coordinates of several points; the most common of them are linear-angular stroke, system of linear-angular strokes, triangulation, trilateration and some others.

The linear-angular course is a sequence of polar notches in which horizontal angles and distances between adjacent points are measured (Fig. 2.17).

Fig.2.17. Scheme of linear-angular stroke

The initial data in the linear-angular stroke are the coordinates XA, YA of point A and the directional angle αBA of line BA, which is called the initial initial directional angle; this angle can be specified implicitly through the coordinates of point B.

The measured quantities are horizontal angles β1, β2,..., βk-1, βk and distances S1, S2, Sk-1, Sk. The error in measuring angles mβ and the relative error in measuring distances mS/S = 1/T are also known.

The directional angles of the sides of the stroke are calculated sequentially using the known formulas for transmitting the directional angle through the angle of rotation

for left corners: (2.64)

for right corners: (2.65)

For the move in Fig. 2.17 we have:

etc.

The coordinates of the traverse points are obtained from solving a direct geodetic problem, first from point A to point 2, then from point 2 to point 3, and so on until the end of the traverse.

The linear-angular stroke shown in Fig. 2.17 is used very rarely, since it lacks measurement control; in practice, as a rule, moves are used that provide for such control.

According to the form and completeness of the initial data, linear-angular moves are divided into the following types:

open stroke (Fig. 2.18): starting points with known coordinates and initial directional angles are at the beginning and end of the stroke;

Fig.2.18. Scheme of an open linear-angular stroke

If there is no initial directional angle at the beginning or end of the move, then it will be a move with partial coordinate reference; if there are no initial directional angles at all in the move, then it will be a move with full coordinate reference.

closed linear-angular stroke (Fig. 2.19) - the initial and final points of the stroke are combined; one point of the move has known coordinates and is called the starting point; at this point there must be an initial direction with a known directional angle, and the adjacent angle between this direction and the direction to the second point of the move is measured.

Fig.2.19. Scheme of a closed linear-angular stroke

a hanging linear-angular stroke (Fig. 2.17) has a starting point with known coordinates and an initial directional angle only at the beginning of the stroke.

a free linear-angular stroke has no starting points and initial directional angles either at the beginning or at the end of the stroke.

Based on the accuracy of measuring horizontal angles and distances, linear-angular traverses are divided into two large groups: theodolite traverses and polygonometric traverses.

In theodolite traverses, horizontal angles are measured with an error of no more than 30"; the relative error in measuring distances mS/S ranges from 1/1000 to 1/3000.

In polygonometric moves, horizontal angles are measured with an error from 0.4" to 10", and the relative error in measuring distances mS/S ranges from 1/5000 to 1/300,000. According to the accuracy of measurements, polygonometric moves are divided into two categories and four classes (see section 7.1).

2.2.2.2. Calculation of coordinates of points of an open linear-angular traverse

Each defined point of the linear-angular move has two coordinates X and Y, which are unknown and which need to be found. The total number of points in the course will be denoted by n, then the number of unknowns will be 2 * (n - 2), since the coordinates of two points (the original start and end) are known. To find 2 * (n - 2) unknowns, it is enough to perform 2 * (n - 2) measurements.

Let's count how many measurements are performed in an open linear-angular stroke: n angles were measured at n points - one at each point, (n - 1) sides of the stroke were also measured, in total we get (2 * n - 1) measurements (Fig. 2.18) .

The difference between the number of measurements taken and the number of required measurements is:

that is, three dimensions are redundant: this is the angle at the penultimate point of the move, the angle at the last point of the move and the last side of the move. But nevertheless, these measurements have been made, and they must be used when calculating the coordinates of the traverse points.

In geodetic constructions, each redundant measurement generates some condition, therefore the number of conditions is equal to the number of redundant measurements; in an open linear-angular stroke, three conditions must be met: the condition of directional angles and two coordinate conditions.

Condition of directional angles. Let us calculate the directional angles of all sides of the stroke sequentially, using the formula for transferring the directional angle to the next side of the stroke:

(2.66)

Let's add these equalities and get:

where
and (2.67)

This is a mathematical notation of the first geometric condition in an open linear-angular motion. For right angles of rotation it will be written like this:

The sum of angles calculated using formulas (2.67) and (2.68) is called the theoretical sum of stroke angles. The sum of measured angles, due to measurement errors, usually differs from the theoretical sum by a certain amount called the angular discrepancy and denoted fβ:

(2.69)

The permissible value of the angular discrepancy can be considered as the maximum error of the sum of the measured angles:

We use the well-known formula from error theory to find the mean square error of a function in the form of a sum of arguments (section 1.11.2):

At
we get
or (2.72)

After substituting (2.72) into (2.70) we get:

(2.73)

For theodolite traverses mβ = 30", therefore:

One of the stages of adjustment is the introduction of corrections to the measured values ​​in order to bring them into compliance with geometric conditions. Let us denote the correction to the measured angle Vβ and write the condition:

from which it follows that:

that is, corrections to angles should be chosen so that their sum is equal to the angular discrepancy with the opposite sign.

There are n unknowns in equation (2.75), and to solve it it is necessary to impose (n-1) additional conditions on the corrections Vβ; The simplest version of such conditions would be:

that is, all corrections to the measured angles are the same. In this case, the solution to equation (2.75) is obtained in the form:

this means that the angular residual fβ is distributed with the opposite sign equally into all measured angles.

Corrected angle values ​​are calculated using the formula:

(2.78)

Using the corrected rotation angles, the directional angles of all sides of the stroke are calculated; the coincidence of the calculated and specified values ​​of the final initial directional angle is a control of the correct processing of angular measurements.

Coordinate conditions. Solving the direct geodetic problem sequentially, we calculate the coordinate increments on each side of the path ΔXi and ΔYi. We obtain the coordinates of the traverse points using the formulas:

(2.79)

Let's add these equalities and get for increments ΔXi:

After bringing similar ones we have:

or

(2.80)

A similar formula for the sum of increments ΔY has the form:

(2.81)

We obtained two more conditions (2.80) and (2.81), which are called coordinate conditions. The sums of coordinate increments calculated using these formulas are called theoretical sums of increments. Due to errors in measuring the sides and the simplified method of distributing the angular discrepancy, the sums of the calculated coordinate increments will in the general case not be equal to the theoretical sums; so-called coordinate discrepancies of the move arise:

(2.82)

from which the absolute motion discrepancy is calculated:

(2.83)

and then the relative discrepancy of the move:

(2.84)

The equalization of the increments ΔX and ΔY is performed as follows.

First, write down the amounts of corrected increments:

and equate them to theoretical amounts:

from which it follows that:

These equations contain (n - 1) unknowns and to solve them it is necessary to impose additional conditions on the corrections VX and VY. In practice, corrections to coordinate increments are calculated using the formulas:

(2.91)

which correspond to the condition “corrections to coordinate increments are proportional to the lengths of the sides.”

The considered method of processing measurements in a linear-angular course can be called a method of sequential distribution of residuals; strict adjustment of the linear-angular motion is performed using the least squares method.

After equalizing a single linear-angular move, the errors in the positions of its points are not the same; they increase from the beginning and end of the move to its middle, and the point in the middle of the move has the greatest position error. In the case of approximate adjustment, this error is estimated as half of the absolute path discrepancy fs. With strict equalization of the stroke, a continuous assessment of accuracy is carried out, that is, errors in the position of each point of the stroke, errors in the directional angles of all sides of the stroke, as well as errors in the adjusted values ​​of the angles and sides of the stroke are calculated.

2.2.2.3. Calculation of coordinates of points of a closed linear-angular traverse

Calculation of the coordinates of points in a closed linear-angular traverse is performed in the same order as in an open traverse; the difference lies in the calculation of theoretical sums of angles and coordinate increments. If internal angles were measured in a closed course, then;

if external, then

(2.92)

2.2.2.4. Linking linear-angular moves

By binding an open linear-angular move we mean including two points with known coordinates in the move (these are the initial and final starting points of the move) and measuring at these points the angles between the direction with a known directional angle (αstart and αend) and the first (last) side of the move; these angles are called adjacent angles. As noted earlier, if the abutment angle is not measured at the initial and/or final point of the move, then a partial (full) coordinate reference of the move takes place.

Linking a closed linear-angular move is the inclusion of one point with known coordinates in the move and the measurement at this point of the adjacent angle, that is, the angle between the direction with a known directional angle and the first side of the move.

In addition to these standard situations, there are cases when a linear-angular move begins or ends at a point with unknown coordinates. In such cases, the additional task of determining the coordinates of this point arises.

The easiest way to determine the coordinates of one point is geodetic serifs; if there are several known points near the determined point, then by performing k angular and (or) linear measurements (k>2), you can calculate the required coordinates using standard algorithms. If this is not possible, then special cases of binding arise; Let's look at some of them.

Transferring coordinates from the top of the sign to the ground. In Fig. 2.20: P is a designated point, T1, T2, T3 are points with known coordinates that can only be used as sighting targets. From point P, only two angles can be measured using the resection program, which is not enough; In addition, with a small distance between points P and T1, the resection angle is very small and the resection accuracy is low. Set two time points A1 and A2 and measure the distances b1 and b2 and the angles β1, β2, β3, β4, β5, β6.

Thus, the total number of measurements is 8, and the number of unknowns is 6 (coordinates of three points). This geodetic construction must be processed using least squares adjustment;

an approximate solution can be obtained using the final formulas given below:

calculating the distance s (s = T1P) two times: from triangles PA1T1 and PA2T2 and then the average of the two:

solving the inverse geodetic problem between points T1 and T2 (calculation α12, L1) and T1 and T3 (calculation α13, L2),

calculating angles μ1 and μ2 from triangles PT2T1 and PT3T1:

;

calculating angles λ1 and λ2 from triangles PT2T1 and PT3T1:

calculation of the directional angle of the T1P line:

solution of a direct geodetic problem from point T to point P:

Linking linear-angular travel to wall marks. Wall marks are laid in the ground floor or in the wall of a permanent building; their designs are different and one of them is shown in Fig. 7.1-d (section 7.2). Laying wall marks and determining their coordinates is carried out when creating geodetic networks in the territory of populated areas and industrial enterprises; in the future, these marks play the role of reference points in subsequent geodetic constructions.

The linear-angular stroke can be linked to two, three or more wall marks.

The diagram for linking the stroke to two marks A and B is shown in Fig. 2.21.

On line AB, segment S is measured using a tape measure, and the coordinates of point P are found from solving a direct geodetic problem using the formulas:

where α is the directional angle of direction AB.

Fig.2.21 Fig.2.22

The scheme of binding to three brands A, B, C is shown in Fig. 2.22. Using a tape measure, the distances S1, S2, S3 are measured and multiple linear intersections are solved; For greater reliability, you can measure angles β1 and β2 and solve a combined notch.

As a reference direction with a known directional angle, you can use either the direction to one of the wall marks, or the direction to some other point with known coordinates.

In addition to the serif method, when linking passages to wall marks, the polar method and the reduction method are also used. On pages 195 - 201 a detailed description of these methods is given, as well as numerical examples.

2.2.2.5. The concept of a system of linear-angular moves

A set of linear-angular moves that have common points is called a system of moves; A nodal point is a point at which at least three moves converge. As for an individual linear-angular stroke, a strict and simplified measurement processing is used for the system of strokes; Let's consider simplified processing using the example of a system of three linear-angular moves with one nodal point (Fig. 2.23). Each move is based on a starting point with known coordinates; at each starting point there is a direction with a known directional angle.

Fig.2.23. System of linear-angular moves with one nodal point.

One side of any move passing through a nodal point is taken as the nodal direction (for example, side 4 - 7) and its directional angle is calculated for each move separately, starting from the initial directional angle in the move. Three values ​​of the directional angle of the nodal direction are obtained:

α1 - from the first move,
α2 - from the second move,
α3 - from the third move,

and calculate the average weight value of the three, and the number 1 / ni is taken as the weight of an individual value, where ni is the number of angles in the course from the initial direction to the nodal direction (in Fig. 2.20 n1 = 4, n2 = 3, n3 = 5):

(2.94)

Considering the nodal direction to be the initial one, that is, having a known directional angle, the angular discrepancies are calculated in each stroke separately and corrections are introduced to the measured angles. Using the corrected angles, the directional angles of all sides of each move are calculated and then the coordinate increments on all sides of the moves are calculated.

Using coordinate increments, the coordinates of the nodal point are calculated for each move separately and three values ​​of the X coordinate and three values ​​of the Y coordinate of the nodal point are obtained.

Average weight values ​​of coordinates are calculated using the formulas:

(2.95),

(2.96)

Considering the nodal point to be a starting point with known coordinates, coordinate residuals are calculated for each move separately and corrections are introduced to the coordinate increments along the sides of the moves. Using the corrected coordinate increments, the coordinates of the points of all moves are calculated.

In short, the simplified processing of a system of linear-angular moves with one nodal point consists of two stages: obtaining the directional angle of the nodal direction and the coordinates of the nodal point and processing each move separately.

2.3. The concept of triangulation

Triangulation is a group of adjacent triangles in which all three angles are measured; two or more points have known coordinates, the coordinates of the remaining points are to be determined. A group of triangles forms either a continuous network or a chain of triangles.

The coordinates of triangulation points are usually calculated on a computer using programs that implement strict least squares adjustment algorithms. In the triangulation preprocessing stage, the triangles are sequentially solved one by one. In our geodesy course we will consider the solution of only one triangle.

In the first triangle ABP (Fig. 2.24), the coordinates of two vertices (A and B) are known and its solution is performed in the following order:

Fig.2.24. Unit triangle triangulation

Calculate the sum of the measured angles,

Taking into account that in the triangle Σβ = 180о, the angular discrepancy is calculated:

Because the

This equation contains three unknown corrections β and can be solved only if two additional conditions are present.

These conditions look like:

whence it follows that

Corrected angle values ​​are calculated:

Solve the inverse problem between points A and B and calculate the directional angle αAB and the length S3 of side AB.

Using the theorem of sines, find the lengths of the sides AP and BP:

Calculate the directional angles of the sides AP and BP:

Solve a direct geodetic problem from point A to point P and for control - from point B to point P; in this case, both solutions must coincide.

In continuous triangulation networks, in addition to angles in triangles, the lengths of individual sides of triangles and directional angles of certain directions are measured; these measurements are performed with greater accuracy and act as additional initial data. When adjusting continuous triangulation networks, the following conditions may arise in them:

figure conditions,

conditions for the sum of angles,

horizon conditions,

pole conditions,

basic conditions,

conditions of directional angles,

coordinate conditions.

The formula for counting the number of conditions in an arbitrary triangulation network is:

where n is the total number of measured angles in triangles,
k - number of points in the network,
g is the amount of redundant source data.

2.4. The concept of trilateration

Trilateration is a continuous network of triangles adjacent to one another, in which the lengths of all sides are measured; At least two points must have known coordinates (Fig. 2.25).

The solution of the first trilateration triangle, in which the coordinates of two points are known and two sides are measured, can be performed using linear intersection formulas, and point 1 must be indicated to the right or left of the reference line AB. In the second triangle, the coordinates of two points and the lengths of two sides are also known ; its solution is also carried out using linear intersection formulas and so on.

Fig.2.25. Diagram of a continuous trilateration network

You can do it differently: first calculate the angles of the first triangle using the cosine theorem, then, using these angles and the directional angle of side AB, calculate the directional angles of sides A1 and B1 and solve the direct geodetic problem from point A to point 1 and from point B to paragraph 1.

Thus, in each individual triangle of “pure” trilateration there are no redundant measurements and there is no possibility of performing measurement control, adjustment and accuracy assessment; in practice, in addition to the sides of the triangles, it is necessary to measure some additional elements and build a network so that geometric conditions arise in it.

The adjustment of continuous trilateration networks is performed on a computer using programs that implement least squares algorithms.

and cartography MODERN PRODUCTION TECHNOLOGIES IN GEODESY, LAND MANAGEMENT, ... Trimble 3305 DR total station, etc. ___________________________________________________ Geodesy. GeneralWell, Dyakova B.N. © 2002 CIT SGGA...

1. Candidate's exam for a general course in a specialty

   Program

   Candidate's exam in generalcourse in specialty 25. ... Almaty, 1990 Poklad G.G. Geodesy. - M: Nedra, 1988. - 304 p. Bokanova V.V. Geodesy. - M.: Nedra, 1980 ... - 268 p. Borshch-Komnoniets V.I. Basics geodesy and surveying business. - M.: Nedra, ...

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   Soil types. Prerequisites: geodesy, ecology Contents course/disciplines: General diagram of the soil-forming process. Chemical... soil types. Prerequisites: geodesy, ecology Contents course/disciplines: General diagram of the soil-forming process. ...

Question:

What regulatory literature can be used to determine whether the designed utility networks (heating networks) are a linear capital construction object or a capital construction object for production and non-production purposes? (What affects stage “P” according to the decree of the Government of the Russian Federation dated 16.02.

Linear object definition urban planning code

Answer:

Rationale:

Grusha G.A.,

REGULATIONS on the composition of sections of project documentation and requirements for their content

III. Composition of sections of design documentation for linear capital construction projects and requirements for the content of these sections

Section 3 "Technological and design solutions for a linear facility.

What is a linear object?

Artificial constructions"

36. Section 3 "Technological and design solutions for a linear facility. Artificial structures" must contain:

in the text part

a) information about the topographical, engineering-geological, hydrogeological, meteorological and climatic conditions of the site where the construction of the linear facility will be carried out;

b) information about the special natural and climatic conditions of the land plot provided for the location of a linear facility (seismicity, frozen soils, dangerous geological processes, etc.);

c) information about the strength and deformation characteristics of the soil at the base of a linear object;

d) information about the level of groundwater, its chemical composition, aggressiveness towards materials of products and structures of the underground part of a linear facility;

f) information about the design capacity (throughput, freight turnover, traffic intensity, etc.) of the linear facility;

g) indicators and characteristics of technological equipment and devices of a linear facility (including reliability, stability, efficiency, the possibility of automatic control, minimum emissions (discharges) of pollutants, compactness, use of the latest technologies);

h) list of energy saving measures;

i) justification for the quantity and types of equipment, including lifting equipment, vehicles and mechanisms used in the process of construction of a linear facility;

j) information on the number and professional qualifications of personnel with distribution by groups of production processes, the number and equipment of workplaces;

k) a list of measures to ensure compliance with labor protection requirements during the operation of a linear facility;

l) justification of automated process control systems adopted in the design documentation, automatic systems to prevent violations of the stability and quality of operation of a linear facility;

m) description of decisions on organizing the repair facility, its equipment;

o) justification of technical solutions for construction in difficult engineering and geological conditions (if necessary);

o) for highways - the documents specified in subparagraphs "a" - "o" of this paragraph, as well as:

information about the main parameters and characteristics of the subgrade, including accepted profiles of the subgrade, the width of the main platform, the length of the subgrade in embankments and excavations, the minimum height of the embankment, the depth of excavations;

justification of requirements for backfill soils (humidity and granulometric composition);

justification of the required density of the embankment soil and the values ​​of compaction coefficients for various types of soil;

calculation of the volume of earthworks;

description of accepted methods for draining surface water entering the subgrade;

description of types of structures and list of road surfaces;

description of the structures of the superstructure of railway tracks at intersections with highways (if necessary);

description of design solutions for anti-deformation structures of the subgrade;

justification of types and design solutions of artificial structures (bridges, pipes, overpasses, overpasses, interchanges, pedestrian bridges, underpasses, cattle runs, retaining walls, etc.);

description of the structural design of artificial structures, materials and products used (foundations, supports, spans, coastal connections, slope fastenings);

justification of the size of openings in artificial structures that allow water to pass through;

a list of artificial structures indicating their main characteristics and parameters (quantity, length, design scheme, costs of prefabricated and monolithic reinforced concrete, concrete, metal);

description of bridge diagrams, overpasses, bridge support diagrams (if necessary), interchange diagrams at different levels;

information about ways to intersect a linear object;

information on the transport and operational condition, the level of accidents of the highway - for reconstructed (subject to major overhaul) highways;

p) for railways - documents and information specified in subparagraphs "a" - "o" of this paragraph, as well as:

a list of measures to protect the route from snow drifts and animals getting on them;

description of the structures of the superstructure of railway tracks, including at intersections with highways;

justification of the main parameters of the designed railway line (guide slope, type of traction, locations of separate points and traction service areas, number of main tracks; specialization, number and useful length of receiving and departure tracks; power supply of electrified lines and locations of traction substations);

data on the estimated number of rolling stock;

information about the designed and (or) reconstructed locomotive and carriage facilities (locations and service areas of locomotive crews; depot locations, their capacity in terms of quantity and types of service, assigned locomotive fleet, justification for the sufficiency of the locomotive facilities and locomotive fleet; assessment of sufficiency devices for servicing carriage facilities; designed devices for carriage facilities, their characteristics);

description of the designed traction service scheme;

justification of the need for operational personnel;

description and requirements for personnel locations, workplace equipment, sanitary facilities for personnel involved in construction;

c) for communication lines - documents and information specified in subparagraphs "a" - "o" of this paragraph, as well as:

information about the possibility of icing of wires and a list of anti-icing measures;

description of the types and sizes of racks (intermediate, corner, transitional, terminal), structures of supports for mast crossings over water barriers;

description of the structures of foundations, supports, lightning protection systems, as well as measures to protect structures from corrosion;

description of technical solutions ensuring connection of the designed communication line to the public communication network;

justification for the construction of new or the use of existing communication structures for transmitting traffic of the designed communication network, technical parameters at the connection points of communication networks (signal level, signal spectra, transmission speeds, etc.);

justification of the adopted alarm systems;

justification of the switching equipment used, which allows accounting of outgoing traffic at all levels of connection;

r) for main pipelines - documents and information specified in subparagraphs "a" - "o" of this paragraph, as well as:

description of the technology of the product transportation process;

information on the design capacity of the pipeline to move the product - for oil pipelines;

characteristics of pipeline parameters;

justification of the pipeline diameter;

information on operating pressure and maximum permissible operating pressure;

description of the operating system of control valves;

justification for the need to use antifriction additives;

justification of pipe wall thickness depending on the drop in operating pressure along the length of the pipeline and operating conditions;

justification of installation locations for shut-off valves, taking into account the terrain, crossed natural and artificial barriers and other factors;

information about reserve pipeline capacity and backup equipment and the potential need for them;

justification for the choice of technology for transporting products based on a comparative analysis (economic, technical, environmental) of other existing technologies;

justification for the selected quantity and quality of main and auxiliary equipment, including valves, its technical characteristics, as well as equipment control methods;

information on the number of workplaces and their equipment, including the number of emergency crews and special transport drivers;

information on the consumption of fuel, electricity, water and other materials for technological needs;

description of the technological process control system (if there is a technological process);

description of the pipeline condition diagnostic system;

a list of measures to protect the pipeline from a decrease (increase) in the temperature of the product above (below) the permissible;

description of the type, composition and volume of waste subject to disposal and disposal;

information on the classification of toxicity of waste, places and methods of their disposal in accordance with established technical conditions;

description of the system for reducing the level of toxic emissions, discharges, list of measures to prevent emergency emissions (discharges);

assessment of possible emergency situations;

information about dangerous areas along the pipeline route and justification for choosing the size of protective zones;

a list of design and organizational measures to eliminate the consequences of accidents, including a plan for the prevention and response to emergency spills of oil and petroleum products (if necessary);

description of design solutions for the passage of the pipeline route (crossing water barriers, swamps, crossing transport communications, laying the pipeline in mountainous areas and through territories exposed to hazardous geological processes);

justification of the safe distance from the axis of the main pipeline to populated areas, engineering structures (bridges, roads), as well as when the main pipeline runs parallel to the specified objects and pipelines similar in functional purpose;

justification of the reliability and stability of the pipeline and its individual elements;

information about loads and impacts on the pipeline;

information on accepted design combinations of loads;

information on the reliability coefficients adopted for calculation by material, by purpose of the pipeline, by load, by soil and other parameters;

the main physical characteristics of pipe steel taken for calculation;

justification of requirements for overall dimensions of pipes, permissible deviations of outer diameter, ovality, curvature, calculated data confirming the strength and stability of the pipeline;

justification of the spatial rigidity of structures (during transportation, installation (construction) and operation);

description and justification of classes and grades of concrete and steel used in construction;

description of design solutions for strengthening foundations and strengthening structures when laying pipelines along routes with slopes steeper than 15 degrees;

justification of the depth of the pipeline in individual sections;

description of design solutions when laying a pipeline through flooded areas, in areas of swamps, areas where talus, landslides are observed, areas subject to erosion, when crossing steep slopes, gullies, as well as when crossing small and medium-sized rivers;

description of the fundamental design solutions for balancing a pipeline pipe using female weights (weight of the set, installation pitch and other parameters);

justification of the selected locations for installing signal signs on the banks of reservoirs, timber rivers and other water bodies;

in the graphic part

s) a diagram of a linear facility indicating the installation locations of technological equipment (if any);

t) drawings of design solutions for load-bearing structures and individual support elements described in the explanatory note;

x) drawings of the main elements of artificial structures and structures;

c) diagrams for fastening structural elements;

h) for highways - diagrams and drawings specified in subparagraphs "y" - "c" of this paragraph, as well as:

drawings of characteristic embankment and excavation profiles, road pavement structures;

w) for railways - diagrams and drawings specified in subparagraphs "y" - "c" of this paragraph, as well as:

drawings of characteristic profiles of the embankment and excavations, the superstructure of the track;

drawings of individual subgrade profiles;

cargo flow diagram (if necessary);

plans of nodes, stations and other separate points indicating capital construction projects, structures and equipment of the railway infrastructure;

y) for communication networks - diagrams and drawings specified in subparagraphs "y" - "c" of this paragraph, as well as:

diagrams for the installation of cable crossings through railways and automobile (highway, dirt) roads, as well as through water barriers;

diagrams for fastening supports and masts with guy ropes;

diagrams of transition nodes from an underground line to an overhead line;

layout diagrams of communication equipment at a linear facility;

clock network synchronization schemes linked to the clock network synchronization scheme of the public network - for communication networks connected to the public communication network and using digital switching and information transmission technology;

e) for main pipelines - diagrams and drawings specified in subparagraphs "y" - "c" of this paragraph, as well as:

layout diagrams of main and auxiliary equipment;

route diagrams indicating the installation locations of valves, launching and receiving units of ball separators (cleaners);

process control and monitoring schemes;

load combination schemes;

schematic diagrams of an automated process control system at a linear facility.

Engineering and technical networks providing two or more capital construction objects are a linear object

Question:

What regulatory literature can be used to determine whether the designed utility networks (heating networks) are a linear capital construction object or a capital construction object for production and non-production purposes? (What affects stage “P” according to the Decree of the Government of the Russian Federation dated 16.

What are linear objects?

Answer:

Engineering and technical networks providing two or more capital construction objects (i.e., functionally not related to individual capital construction objects) are considered as a separate linear object.

Rationale:

The current legislation on urban planning does not contain a definition of the concept of “linear object”.

All known definitions of this concept are formed on the basis of the definition of the concept of “red lines” given in Article 1 (clause 11) of the Civil Code of the Russian Federation.

The Ministry of Regional Development of the Russian Federation, in accordance with paragraph 2 of the Decree of the Government of the Russian Federation of February 16, 2008 N 87, was authorized until June 14, 2014 to provide explanations on the procedure for applying the “Regulations on the composition of sections of project documentation and requirements for their content” (hereinafter referred to as the “Regulations...” .

In the letter of the Ministry of Regional Development of Russia dated May 20, 2011 N 13137-IP/08 “On the state examination of design documentation for the construction, reconstruction and overhaul of utility networks”, a legal position was formulated applicable to the situation described in the question:

In accordance with the Urban Planning Code of the Russian Federation, linear objects include power lines, communication lines (including linear cable structures), pipelines, roads, railway lines and other similar structures located within the red lines - lines that indicate existing, planned (changed, newly formed) boundaries of public areas, boundaries of land plots...

According to the Ministry of Regional Development of Russia, in the case of construction, reconstruction, overhaul of engineering and technical support networks, which are functionally part of a separate capital construction project, extending beyond the boundaries of the land plot allocated for the specified purposes, and at the same time not extending beyond the boundaries of the element of the planning structure ( block, microdistrict), information about such networks is also included in section 5 of the project documentation. Engineering and technical networks providing two or more capital construction projects are considered as a separate linear object, which includes a quarterly gas pipeline and other linear objects (water supply, sewerage, line-cable communication structures, etc.).

Taking into account the above, design documentation of engineering support networks that are not functionally related to individual capital construction projects is subject to state examination as design documentation of linear facilities. Design documentation for the construction, reconstruction and overhaul of utility networks that are not linear objects and are part of a capital construction project (Section 5 of the design documentation) is subject to state examination only if the design documentation for the object itself is subject to state examination .

This position of the Ministry of Regional Development of Russia remains in force, since the Ministry of Construction of Russia, which, in accordance with Decree of the Government of the Russian Federation dated March 26, 2014 N 230, has been given the authority to provide explanations on the procedure for applying the “Regulations on the composition of sections of project documentation and requirements for their content”, has a different position on this did not formulate the question.

Grusha G.A.,

professional support line expert

This material is a response to a private request and may lose its relevance due to changes in legislation.

The State Duma Committee on Natural Resources, Property and Land Relations held on Thursday, October 11, a meeting with representatives of the Ministry of Natural Resources, the Federal Property Management Agency, the Federal Forestry Agency and the Federal Antimonopoly Service on the issue of selling wood that is generated during the construction of power lines, pipelines and other linear facilities, as well as the development of mineral deposits minerals on forest lands.

According to the head of the relevant Duma committee, Nikolai Nikolaev, the need to discuss this issue is caused by problems associated with the sale of such wood.

Capital construction: features and characteristics

They consist in the lack of demand for it due to remoteness, inaccessibility of forest areas and the high cost of transportation, as well as the duration of the existing procedure for selling such wood, which leads to its deterioration. In addition, there is no mechanism for determining responsibility for the volume of wood and its further safety. As a result, unsold wood remains in forest areas, which also leads to violations of sanitary and fire safety rules in forests.

“Companies receive permission from the state to cut down this forest because they are laying pipelines and electrical networks. With the existing model for disposing of the resulting wood, only 1/3 is actually sold. 60-70 percent of the wood, and this is state property, is left to simply rot. We are losing "

These issues of forest use are regulated by Articles 44-46 of the Forest Code of the Russian Federation. The ownership of timber that is cut down during the construction of linear facilities and the development of mineral deposits on forest lands belongs to the Russian Federation. The authority for the sale of such timber is the Federal Property Management Agency, which organizes auctions for the sale of timber and enters into purchase and sale agreements with their winners. However, the volumes of timber sold by the Federal Property Management Agency are incomparably less than the timber harvested as part of the use of forests in accordance with the specified articles of the Forest Code.

As a result of the meeting, it was decided to bring the problem up for more detailed discussion at a meeting of the relevant Duma committee. Nikolaev also requested from the Ministry of Natural Resources and the Federal Property Management Agency data on the volumes of cut down and sold timber, and from representatives of timber companies who took part in the meeting to send their proposals to solve this problem.

Geodetic alignment network

To support engineering and geodetic work, support networks are created that serve as the basis for topographic surveys during surveys; to perform various works in cities and towns; to carry out marking work during the construction of buildings and structures, etc.

Engineering-geodetic planning and high-altitude support networks are a system of geometric figures, the vertices of which are fixed on the ground with special signs and are created in accordance with the project for the production of geodetic works (PPGR).

Engineering and geodetic networks have a number of characteristic features:

— networks are often created in a conventional coordinate system with reference to the state coordinate system;

— the shape of the network depends on the size of the serviced territory or the shape of the object;

— networks have limited sizes;

- the lengths of the sides are usually short;

— network points are subject to increased stability requirements in difficult operating conditions;

— observation conditions are usually unfavorable.

The choice of the type of construction of support networks depends on the type of object, its shape and occupied area; network destinations; physical and geographical conditions; required accuracy; availability of measuring instruments. Triangulation used as an initial construction on objects of significant area or length in open rough terrain; polygonometry yu - in a closed area or built-up area; linear-angular construction - if necessary, create networks of increased accuracy; trilateration – usually on small objects where high accuracy is required; construction nets – on industrial sites.

High-altitude support networks are created using the method geometric leveling in the form of single moves or systems of moves and polygons laid between the original benchmarks. When using electronic tacheometers, trigonometric leveling is performed.

Features of the design and implementation of planning and development projects for rural settlements

Topographic and geodetic work carried out in the territories of settlements and rural settlements consists of: large-scale surveys of 1:500-1:5000; drawing up a topographical basis in the form of plans, maps and profiles for the development of planning and development projects (reconstruction, expansion) of towns and rural settlements.

The main method of drawing up plans is aerial photography. Ground-based methods are used only when surveying at scales of 1:500 and 1:1000, and also, if the use of aerial photography is impractical, at scales of 1:2000 and 1:5000. In cases where less graphical accuracy of the plan is required than that provided for plans of scales 1:500, 1:1000, 1:2000 and 1:5000, then plans of these scales can be obtained by increasing plans of scales 1:1000, 1, respectively: 2000, 1:5000 and 1:10000.

The scale of topographic plans depends on the requirements for the accuracy of design and survey work, the design stage, and the density of the contours of the situation on the ground. The choice of the height of the relief section depends on the accuracy of the upcoming territory planning and the slopes of the terrain.

The basis for the development of master plans for populated areas, drawing up projects for on-farm land management, forest management, selection and allocation in the prescribed manner for various needs of land plots, and selection of routes is the regional planning project. It consists of graphical (project plan - main drawing to scale

1:25,000 – 1:100,000) and text materials. The regional planning project determines the location and volume of housing, cultural and social, industrial, land reclamation construction, etc.

For planning and development of rural populated areas, the most suitable areas are those with a relief having a slope of 0.5 - 5%.

In the process of engineering and geodetic surveys, a master plan is prepared - a large-scale topographic plan of a village, rural populated area, which depicts the entire complex of ground, air and underground structures for an estimated period of 20 years, in accordance with the regional planning project.

For settlements and rural populated areas, master plans are developed in combination with detailed planning projects, in which the designed red lines of residential and public development sites, green spaces, personal and apartment plots, outbuildings of personal subsidiary plots, utility driveways, and livestock runs are drawn onto the plan.

Drawing up planning projects for rural populated areas involves placing various objects on the design plan: residential, industrial and other zones; and within these zones - blocks and areas, public buildings, industrial buildings, streets, squares in accordance with economic, sanitary and hygienic, architectural and technical requirements and taking into account natural conditions. Each object on the design plan is limited by straight lines, parallel or intersecting at specified angles, as well as curved lines of certain radii.

Methods for designing planning objects and designing crop rotation areas, fields and plots when drawing up land management projects have similarities and differences. The similarity lies in the fact that design in both cases is carried out according to the principle from general to specific. First, large areas and zones are placed, then small areas, fields, and blocks are placed inside them. When designing, they are guided by economic, technical and geometric conditions. The difference is that when designing fields, they are guided by given areas and directions of lines (angles), and when designing planning objects, they are guided by the directions of lines, areas of plots, their linear dimensions and the rules of architectural and planning composition.

When drawing up planning projects, mainly graphic and graphic-analytical design methods are used.

Planning projects for rural populated areas are transferred into nature using the same methods as land management projects. The peculiarity of transferring a planning project into reality is that during desk preparation of the alignment drawing and during field work, it is necessary to maintain the parallelism of the sides of streets and driveways, the shape and size of residential and industrial complexes and ensure reliable fixation of design points in nature. Therefore, the transfer of a project, like design, is carried out in a strict sequence from the general to the specific, i.e. first transferring main points of the project, then the tops of sections of microdistricts or blocks, then the boundaries of smaller sections in microdistricts or blocks, then places to build buildings and, finally, details of planning elements.

The choice of method for transferring the project to nature and the order of work depends on the availability of points in the geodetic network and their density. The denser the points of the geodetic network are located, the easier and faster it is possible to transfer the project to nature. In this case, the following methods can be used: polar, perpendicular, alignment measurements, linear and angular intersections, design theodolite traverse.

Design of linear objects

Linear structures according to their location can be divided into ground: railways, roads, tramways; underground (pipelines): water supply, gas pipeline, etc.; overhead (air): Power lines, communication lines, etc.

The main task of designing linear structures is to select the optimal position of the route line on the ground. The chosen option should provide for a balance in the volume of excavation work, fit well into the existing situation, ensuring the least disruption to the environment.

Chapter 3. Features of creating certain types of objects

When designing, technical conditions must be taken into account, which depend on the purpose of the future structure. The main part of these problems is solved during office and field tracing. After choosing the main option office-wise and performing field tracing, longitudinal and transverse profiles of the terrain are drawn up, and they begin to design the route line in height.

The design profile of a linear structure is developed in accordance with the technical conditions, economic requirements and features of its operation when designing roads and railways, the main focus is on ensuring smooth and safe movement at a given maximum speed. The slope of the design line should not exceed the maximum value

and the radius of the vertical curve be less than the permissible value

When designing underground pipelines, the profile slope must ensure the movement of liquid in the pipes at a certain speed, excluding the settling of suspended particles at minimum slopes imin and abrasion of pipes with sand and solid particles at maximum slopes imax, i.e.

Currently, the design of linear structures is carried out on a computer.

Definition of the term “linear object”, classifying it as real estate objects. The need to introduce the concept of a linear object into the Town Planning Code based on an analysis of regulatory legal acts. Placement of objects on a land plot.

Students, graduate students, young scientists who use the knowledge base in their studies and work will be very grateful to you.

Posted on http://www.allbest.ru/

Russian Academy of National Economy and Public Administration under the President of the Russian Federation (Volgograd branch)

Department of Constitutional and Administrative Law

Linear objects: concept and types

master's student Shmakova Darina Andreevna

annotation

The article discusses current issues that arise when defining the concept of “linear object” and classifying it as real estate. Based on the analysis of regulatory legal acts, it is concluded that it is necessary to introduce a definition of “linear object” into the Town Planning Code of the Russian Federation, which will streamline the procedures for placing linear objects on a land plot.

Keywords: types of linear objects, linear object, real estate objects, legal regime of linear objects, length of the object

Abstract

The article deals with topical issues arising from the definition of "linear object" and its assignment to the objects of real estate. Based on the analysis of legal acts concluded on the need for the Town Planning Code of the Russian Federation the definition of "linear object", which will streamline the procedure of placement of linear objects on the land.

In the current legislation, there is currently no such concept as a linear object. This concept can be revealed by using and listing various legal acts, since there is no clear and specific legal formulation of a linear object naming its types and characteristics.

For example, in the Town Planning Code of the Russian Federation and in the Federal Law “On the transfer of land or land plots from one category to another”, linear objects include power lines, communication lines, railway lines, roads, pipelines and other similar structures.

The Forestry Code of the Russian Federation also reveals the concept of linear objects through the listing of power lines, communications, roads, pipelines and other linear objects.

The same definition is contained in the order of Rosleskhoz dated June 10, 2011. No. 223 “On approval of the rules for the use of scaffolding for construction, reconstruction, and operation of linear facilities.”

A separate definition is given by the legislation of the fuel and energy complex. Linear objects mean a system of linearly extended objects of the fuel and energy complex, for example, oil pipelines, main gas pipelines, electrical networks.

Taking into account the concept of a linear object, which is contained in the Federal Law “On the transfer of land or land plots from one category to another” and in the Urban Planning Code, linear objects can also include bridges, subways, tunnels, funiculars, etc.

If we consider the Federal Law “Technical Regulations on the Safety of Buildings and Structures”, it also gives concepts that can be used when defining a linear object:

1) engineering support network - a set of pipelines, communications and other structures intended for engineering and technical support of buildings and structures;

2) engineering and technical support system - one of the systems of a building or structure designed to perform the functions of water supply, sewerage, heating, ventilation, air conditioning, gas supply, electricity supply, communications;

3) structure - the result of construction, which is a volumetric, planar or linear building system, having ground, above-ground and (or) underground parts, consisting of load-bearing, and in some cases, enclosing building structures and intended for performing various types of production processes, storage products, temporary stay of people, movement of people and goods. linear object urban planning land

Another definition of a linear object is contained in the Regulations on the composition of sections of project documentation and requirements for their content, where pipelines, highways, power lines, etc. are identified as linear objects.

But as can be seen from all these definitions, in fact they are not definitions - they contain enumerations of types of linear objects.

Taking into account the above, it is necessary to formulate a definition of a linear object, namely, to highlight its essential characteristics, which would clearly make it possible to separate the structure from other objects.

Thus, taking into account all the enumeration of this concept, we can conclude that linear objects are linearly extended elements of the organization of the territory. These objects can be located on a plot of land in the form of straight and curved lines, which are characterized by length, width, coordinates of the starting and ending points.

The concept of a linear object can also be defined taking into account the following characteristics:

1) Significant length of the object - the length of the object exceeds its width;

2) A linear object is a structure that is a volumetric, planar or linear construction system, including ground, above-ground or underground, consisting of load-bearing and enclosing building structures;

3) Strong connection with the ground - above-ground, above-ground and underground types of linear objects. It is this characteristic that determines the need to classify linear objects depending on their connection with the ground;

4) The purpose of linear objects is transport communications, communication lines, oil pipelines, gas pipelines, electrical networks, water pipelines, sewerage and storm drains. Taking into account the purpose of objects, linear objects can be classified depending on their design (pipelines, networks).

In addition, in various regulations, the characteristics of linear structures are indicated using different definitions.

All these circumstances indicate the lack of a developed scheme for the legal regulation of relations arising in relation to linear objects, leading to problems in determining the legal regime in practice.

All of the listed concepts of a linear object in various regulatory legal acts lead to the difficulty of classifying a particular object as a linear object, which accordingly entails the application of an inappropriate legal regime for the use of a land plot for the placement of a linear object.

When determining the legal regime of linear objects, the question arises of classifying them as real estate objects.

The legislation does not directly define linear objects as real estate objects; as a result, in judicial and legal practice there are ambiguous judgments on this issue.

Often, judicial practice in resolving disputes regarding complex objects is contradictory, because a linear object is characterized by differences in the technical characteristics of its component parts.

Thus, the courts believe that it is impossible to move a railway track, since it will be a different track with different characteristics and purpose, but it is possible to move a cable line without compromising its purpose. However, the issue of classifying linear objects as real estate objects should not be in doubt.

Taking into account the general concept of real estate in the Town Planning Code of the Russian Federation, it follows that the main criteria for classifying an object as real estate are a strong connection with the land and the impossibility of moving without disproportionate damage to its purpose. Linear objects meet these criteria, in addition, they are capital construction objects, and also taking into account the provisions of Article 1, paragraph 11 of the Town Planning Code of the Russian Federation, we can draw a conclusion about the immovable nature of linear objects.

Based on the norms of civil legislation, the criterion for classifying a thing as a real estate object is not the purpose of the object, but the physical property of the object - a strong connection with the land. At the same time, the legislation does not limit the owner in determining the purpose of real estate and its role in the technological process.

Being one of the types of real estate objects, linear objects have a number of the following characteristics:

- complex and indivisible things;

- significant length;

- location in more than one registration district.

At the same time, all linear objects are subject to technical accounting, and transactions with them are subject to state registration.

Thus, in general terms, a linear object is a complex real estate object that has the characteristics of length and a specific production purpose.

Taking into account specific characteristics, the legislation established the peculiarities of the legal regime for the use of land plots intended for the placement of linear objects.

For example, in accordance with paragraph 2 of Art. 78 of the Land Code of the Russian Federation, the use of agricultural lands provided for the period of construction of linear facilities is carried out without transferring the lands to lands of other categories.

At the same time, for the purposes of operating linear facilities, it is necessary to transfer the land plot to industrial and other special purpose land.

To summarize, we can conclude that the main feature of a linear object is a dedicated land plot with a permitted type of use for the entire duration of the existence of this object, the owner of which must pay land tax.

In order to streamline the urban planning regulation of linear objects, their structure, commissioning, and cadastral registration, it is necessary to include a definition of a linear object in the Urban Planning Code of the Russian Federation.

After analyzing legal acts, we can give the following definition to linear objects - linear objects are a system of structures including ground, above-ground or underground structural elements, the length of which significantly exceeds their width and which are designed to ensure the movement, movement and transfer of materials and substances in the interests of the state and local population.

Take into account the features of above-ground and underground structural elements, the placement and operation of which require constant use on the surface of the land plot within which they are located.

Further development of the legal regulation of the placement of linear objects and related land legal relations cannot do without introducing the concept of “linear object” into the legislation on urban planning activities. This introduction will help avoid broad interpretation in practice and streamline the procedures for placing linear objects. Considering the large number of special laws that regulate relations related to the use of land for the placement of linear objects, this concept will also improve the level of legislation in various industries.

Bibliography

1. “Town Planning Code of the Russian Federation” dated December 29, 2004 N 190-FZ (as amended on December 30, 2015) (with amendments and additions, entered into force on January 10, 2016).

2. Federal Law of December 21, 2004 N 172-FZ (as amended on April 20, 2015) “On the transfer of lands or land plots from one category to another.”

3. “Forest Code of the Russian Federation” dated December 4, 2006 N 200-FZ (as amended on July 13, 2015, amended on December 30, 2015) (as amended and supplemented, entered into force on January 1, 2016).

4. Order of Rosleskhoz dated June 10, 2011 N 223 “On approval of the Rules for the use of forests for construction, reconstruction, and operation of linear facilities” (Registered with the Ministry of Justice of the Russian Federation on August 3, 2011 N 21533).

5. Federal Law of July 21, 2011 N 256-FZ (as amended on October 14, 2014) “On the safety of fuel and energy complex facilities.”

6. Federal Law of December 30, 2009 N 384-FZ (as amended on July 2, 2013) “Technical Regulations on the Safety of Buildings and Structures.”

7. Decree of the Government of the Russian Federation of February 16, 2008 N 87 (as amended on January 23, 2016) “On the composition of sections of project documentation and requirements for their content.”

8. Shuplevtsova Yu.I. Selected issues of using forest areas for construction, reconstruction and operation of linear facilities // Property relations in the Russian Federation. 2015. No. 2.

9. Chernaya A.A. Linear objects: problems of correlation with auxiliary objects // TerraEconomikus, 2011, volume 9 No. 2.

10. Resolution of the Federal Antimonopoly Service of the Northwestern District dated May 12, 2006. No. A56-22940/2005 // ATP “Consultant”; Resolution of the Federal Antimonopoly Service of the Northwestern District of December 3, 2002. No. A56-19925/02 // ATP “Consultant”.

11. “Land Code of the Russian Federation” dated October 25, 2001 N 136-FZ (as amended on December 30, 2015) (with amendments and additions, entered into force on January 1, 2016).

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