Historical borders of Ukraine. Ban Ki-moon’s statement to the UN: “Ukraine is not a state - it is an administrative district of the USSR.” Little Russia What was included in Little Russia before 1917

Before 1917, the Ukrainian border more than once became a stumbling block between venerable history professors, famous politicians and cultural figures. The formation of a modern state lasted for centuries, during which ancient cities and peoples were replaced more than once or twice.

Arrival of the Cimmerians

The first people on Ukrainian territory were the Cimmerians, who were mentioned in the reflection of the era - “The Odyssey”.

Ancient nomads, who spoke one of the dialects of the Iranian language group, visited the Black Sea region around the 9th century BC. It is assumed that the tribes of Cimmerians-Cimmerians from the Lower Volga region roamed, and the favorable climate forced them to stay in the wild steppes for two hundred years . The historical borders of Ukraine before 1917 were constantly changing, and this began almost 3,000 years ago, and since that time the territory has repeatedly expanded, decreased and taken on unimaginable shapes.

Since the nomads did not know letters, they left no information about themselves, with the exception of archaeological sites and rare mentions in the chronicles of that time. Contemporaries had something to say about the terrible savages - most historians described the Cimmers as ruthless and skillful warriors, and the customs of the tribes awed enlightened peoples.

Wild Scythians

Herodotus in his works mercilessly went through the customs and social system of the nomads and described in vivid colors the merciless extermination of the Black Forest aborigines by the Cimmerians. We know what the border of Ukraine was before 1917, but it could have been anywhere if the steppe horsemen had not driven out the less developed forest inhabitants.

However, the fate of the Black Foresters very quickly befell the Cimmerians. They, in turn, were unable to repel the Scythians, who raided the sites, plundered homes and stole horses in herds.

The next wave of nomads (Scythians) reached its greatest prosperity in the 5th-4th centuries BC.

The first centralized stronghold of culture on the territory of Ukraine - Great Scythia - was described by Herodotus. The borders of Ukraine before 1917, since the time of the Scythians, took the form of an expanded rectangle around the Northern Black Sea region from the Danube in the west to the eastern part Sea of ​​Azov.

From the north, the space is limited by Pripyat and a line that runs through modern Chernigov, connecting Kursk and Voronezh. In the 3rd century BC, the Scythians finally replaced the Sarmatians in the Black Sea steppes. On the Black Sea plains, the tribes survived for about six centuries (until the first millennium BC), until they were driven away by the Goths and Huns. After their invasion, the territory of Ukraine was dominated by the Slavic tribes of the Antes and related Sklavins.

The border of Ukraine changed a huge number of times before 1917: at a slower pace during the time of the nomads, and then changes in the shape of the territory began to occur at cosmic speeds.

Sklavins, Antes, Wends

The Gothic historian Jordan writes and often mentions the Sklavins. According to him, the Slavic Slavs had a common ancestor, and they live in three Vendian tribes - the brave Wends, the strong Antes, and their smaller brothers - the Sklavins. But in the 7th century, the French chronicler and historian Fredegar said that “the Slavins are Wends.”

Archaeologists often find Antian treasures consisting of gold and silver obtained during campaigns and raids in nearby territories. Ant warriors were armed with bows and arrows, shields, and long swords were also part of the standard equipment. The Antes were considered the most powerful Slavic tribe: they were mercenary soldiers in the Byzantine army.

Prisoners were often used as slaves; selling them or taking ransom from nearby neighbors was a kind of etiquette of that time. Nevertheless, after some time, a captured slave could become a free and full member of the community. The main deity of the Ants - Perun - was considered relatively flexible. Bloodless sacrifice is a fundamental principle of belief; among the offerings on the altars of idols, archaeologists found only prepared food, herbs and jewelry. During the times of the Antes, the process of the emergence of Kyiv and Volyn began, which once again changed the borders of Ukraine. However, 1917 was still a long way off.

The origins of Kievan Rus

The next milestone in the history of the development of the modern state was Kievan Rus. The city, which became the cultural and social center of a vast territory, was rebuilt, burned and destroyed many times. Until 1917, the border of Ukraine changed along with it - it either covered nearby lands, or narrowed to the suburbs of Kyiv.

The state around the Kyiv settlement arose in the 9th century, when the distant Eastern Slavs and tribes of the Finno-Ugric group united under the rule of the prince of the Rurik dynasty. The history of Kyiv as an independent city-state begins with the capture of the capital by Oleg, who brought with him the Eastern Slavic tribes.

The rise of the state

The border of Ukraine before the revolution of 1917 (somewhere at the end of the 10th century, at the time it was beyond the Dniester and in the upper reaches in the west, covered the Taman Peninsula in the southeast and was lost in the upper reaches of the Northern Dvina. Geography also helps to imagine the cities of Kievan Rus and understand her territorial structure. The oldest of the ancient settlements is Kyiv, and behind it came Chernigov, ancient Pereyaslavl, famous Smolensk, promising Rostov, new Ladoga, fabulous Pskov and new Polotsk.

The reign of princes Vladimir (960-1015) and Yaroslav (1019-1054) was the time of greatest prosperity for the state. It’s amazing what the border of Ukraine was like before the 1917 revolution! The territories expanded incredibly: from the Carpathians to the Baltic steppes and the Black Sea region.

By the middle of the 12th century, a dark era of feudal fragmentation began in the powerful Kievan Rus, with turmoil breaking into a dozen separate principalities ruled by various branches of the Rurikids. The beginning of 1132 is considered official start intra-family squabbles, when after the death of Mstislav the Great, the son of Vladimir Monomakh, the power of the Prince of Kyiv ceased to be recognized by Polotsk and Novgorod at the same time. Kyiv was not officially considered the capital until the Tatar-Mongol invasion (1237-1240). What would have been the border of Ukraine before the 1917 revolution if there had been no Troubles? Perhaps Kievan Rus would have grown to the size of Rome and Carthage, only to fall ingloriously under the burden of problems beyond the reach of huge empires.

Collapse and Troubles

In the battle with the Mongols on the Kalka River (in the territory of the modern Donetsk region) at the end of May 1223, almost all the southern Russian princes took part, many of them, as well as many noble boyars, fell in the battle. Close relatives, servants and older descendants died with the princes, which led to the bleeding of the best families of the country. Victory went to the Mongols, and the survivors faced captivity and shame. With the weakening of the southern Russian principalities, the Hungarian and Lithuanian feudal lords intensified their offensive, but the influence of the princes of the Chernigov, Novgorod and Kyiv regions also increased. What would the border of Ukraine have been like before 1917, if everything had worked out in favor of the Russians? Historians suggest that the petty princes would have quarreled with each other with the same result - the most noble and well-born people of Kievan Rus would have died in the battles for power and land.

Fall of Kyiv

In 1240, the Mongols (led by Batu Khan, grandson of the formidable Genghis Khan) turned Kyiv to ashes. The remains of the city were received by Prince Yaroslav Vsevolodovich, whom the Mongols recognized as the main one, as well as his son Alexander Nevsky. But they did not transport the capital city to Kyiv and remained in Vladimir - away from the wild nomads with their arrows, herds and incomprehensible customs.

Before the revolution in 1917, where was the border? Where battles raged during the times of Kievan Rus. Then the tendency was firmly and finally established that every inch must be taken by force.

Principality of Galicia

In 1245, during a battle in Yaroslav (in modern Poland, the city of Yaroslav on the San River), Danila Galitsky and his army defeated the regiments of Hungarian and Polish feudal lords. Danila Galitsky, on the basis of a Western alliance against the Golden Horde, received the title of king from the pope in 1253. The reign of Danil Romanovich was the period of the greatest rise of the Galicia-Volyn principality. The strength of the state caused concern in the Golden Horde. The principality was forced to pay tribute to the Horde constantly, and the rulers undertook to send troops for joint campaigns with the Mongols. Nevertheless, the Galicia-Volyn principality managed to successfully resolve many foreign policy issues in its favor.

The border of Ukraine before the revolution in 1917 changed rapidly. This happened during the time of Danila Galitsky. In the second half of the 13th century, the Galician-Volyn principality did not control the south of the territory, but then regained control over these lands and gained access to the Black Sea. After 1323, all newly acquired territories were again lost for many centuries. Polesie was annexed by Lithuania at the beginning of the 14th century in a series of wars between the Kingdom of Poland and the territories ceded to Poland in 1349 became a kind of symbol of the end of the heyday. From this year, the Galicia-Volyn principality was in official decline.

New territories

The border of Ukraine before the revolution of 1917, as already noted, changed countless times, and at the time when Lithuania was able to resist the Mongols on the territory of modern Kirovograd, the outlines again changed beyond recognition.

Many Orthodox princes were not against rapprochement with Poland, although in 1381-1384, 1389-1392 and 1432-1439. there were three civil wars. Many cities, including, for example, Lviv, Kyiv, Vladimir-Volynsky, received their own government according to

In the 90s of the XIV century. Jagiello's cousin Vytautas, thanks to an alliance with the Mongols, managed to peacefully annex the entire vast territory south of the vast Wild Field. This is how the historical borders of Ukraine developed; before the revolution of 1917, they subsequently changed little. New areas allowed the economy and society of that time to gradually acquire recognizable features.

Hetmans and Ruins

The next reformer and landmark ruler was Bohdan Khmelnytsky. Revolt 1648-1654 under his leadership led to the emergence of an autonomous hetman. It is not known for certain where the Ukrainian border lay before the intervention of the Cossack chieftain. Until 1917, the state experienced many more significant events. Vague and fragmentary information was often based only on ancient, long-lost statutes and documents. In Khmelnitsky, the Rada made a number of decisions, the consequence of which was the Russian-Polish War of 1654-1667. Its course contributed to the outbreak of civil wars between various hetmans. Left-bank Ukraine wanted to be part of Russia, and Right-bank Ukraine sought to create a strong union with Poland.

The beginning of Novorossiya

Now you know where the border of Ukraine was before 1917 at different historical stages. During the Northern War, Hetman Mazepa unexpectedly took the side that was defeated in the battle of Poltava. As a result, the autonomy and rights of the Hetmanate were limited, and the administration of the vast territory was under the jurisdiction of the Little Russian Collegium. The period after the collapse of the Russian Empire did not produce any special territorial acquisitions.

The way the Ukrainian border was formed before the 1917 revolution depended on the foreign and domestic policies of the state. The territory of the country acquired the name “Novorossiya” and the corresponding outlines at the end of the 18th century.

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Little Rus' (tracing from the Middle Greek Μικρὰ Ῥωσσία), Little Russia, later Little Russia, less often Little Russia - a name that appeared in Byzantium at the beginning of the 14th century to define the Galicia-Volyn land in church-administrative terms. Also the name of the territory of the Dnieper region in the 15th-16th centuries and the Left Bank Ukraine after its entry into the Russian kingdom on the rights of autonomy, after the oath of Ukrainian Cossacks at the Pereyaslav Rada in the 17th century. In the Russian Empire from the 18th to the beginning of the 20th century, it was used as the name of the historical region and the Little Russian province.

During the XIV-XVI centuries, along with the former name Rus' (Greek Ρωσία - Russia), new ones appear in sources to designate its two parts: Great Rus' subordinate to the Golden Horde and part of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania - Little Rus'. Little Rus' and Great Rus' came from the Greek names Μικρά Ρωσία - Mikra Rosia and Μακρά Ρωσία - Makra Rosia, which were used in the church-administrative practice of Byzantium from the beginning of the 14th century. The Greeks, by analogy with the terms “Little Greece” and “Greater Greece” (the region with ancient Greek colonies), understood “Little Russia” as the territory of the Dnieper region - that is, the core, the place “from where” the state came. And under “Great Russia” are all the other lands that were once conquered or subjugated and were part of Kievan Rus. This Hellenized version of the name was adopted and popularized by the official circles of the Russian Empire. According to Oleg Trubachev, the name “small” arose as a contrast to the already established name “Great Rus'”, which referred to more northern lands and meant “external”, “new” Rus'. The names of cities in “Great Rus'” are also indicative - Veliky Novgorod, Veliky Rostov, in contrast to southern Novgorod and Rostov. “Small” in this case means “original”, primordial Rus', and “Great” means external, colonized Rus'. In addition to Greater and Lesser Greece, in ancient times there existed Lesser and Greater Macedonia, where the capital of Alexander the Great, the city of Pella (in the territory of modern Greece), was called Lesser Macedonia, and all the lands he conquered were called “Great”. Also in Poland, since ancient times, similar terms have been used in relation to the first capital of the Poles, Krakow - Lesser Poland, Lesser Poland Voivodeship (Polish Województwo małopolskie) and Greater Poland (Polish Wielkopolska), all lands that were part of Poland.
The term “Little Russia” was first used at the beginning of the 14th century in Byzantium to define modern Western Ukrainian lands in church administrative practice. The Galician metropolis, created in 1303, covered six dioceses: Galician, Przemysl, Vladimir, Kholmskaya, Lutsk and Turov (that is, also part of the territory of modern Belarus), which in Byzantine sources were called Little Russia (Greek: Μικρά Ρωσία - Mikra Rossia ) in contrast to Great Russia (Μακρά Ρωσία - Makra Rosia), which from 1354 meant the territory of 19 dioceses under the authority of the Kiev Metropolitan, whose residence (seat) was located from 1299-1300 in Vladimir, and from 1325-1461 in Moscow.
The Prince of Galicia and Volyn, King of Russia Yuri II Boleslav, in a letter to the Grand Master of the German Order Dietrich, dated October 20, 1335, called himself “dux totius Rusiæ Minoris” (“Prince of all Little Russia”), although both he and his predecessors called themselves “Rex Russiæ” (“King of Russia”), “Dux totius terræ Russiæ” (“Prince of all the Russian Land”), “Dux et Dominus Russiæ” (“Prince and Lord of Russia”). Ultimately, the names “Great Rus'” and “Little Rus'” reached the official level - the Patriarch of Constantinople established (1361) two metropolises, one in “Little Rus'” (“Mikra Rossia”), with a center in Novgorod and Galich, the other in "Great Rus'", with its center in Kiev.
The Polish king Casimir the Great was called “the king of Lyakhia and Little Rus'”, since he extended his power to a significant part of the possessions of Yuri-Boleslav. According to the scheme of Mikhail Grushevsky, “Little Rus'” is the Galician-Volyn state, and with its death, the entry of its lands into Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, this name “falls out of use.”
Hetmanate
Starting from the middle of the 17th century, the name Little Rus' was used in church correspondence between Kyiv and Moscow. In chronicles and on geographical maps, almost until the end of the 17th century, Western Ukrainian lands were called Rus (Russia), Russian Land (Ziemia Ruska) or Red Rus' (Russia Rubra). Contarini calls Lower Russia the lands where the cities of Lutsk, Zhitomir, Belgorod (now the village of Belogorodka, 10 km from Kyiv) and Kyiv are located.
After the Treaty of Pereyaslavl in 1654, the Russian Tsar changed his title to “All Great and Lesser Russia,” to which the addition of “White” was added over time. Since that time, the name Little Russia (Little Rus') also began to spread in government correspondence, chronicles and literature, in particular, used by Bogdan Khmelnitsky: “... The very capital of Kiev, as well as these parts of our Little Russias,” Ivan Sirko. The abbot of the Kiev-Pechersk Monastery Innocent Gisel in the “Kiev Synopsis” (1674) formulated an understanding of the Russian people as a triune people consisting of Great Russians, Little Russians and Belarusians, and the state power of the Moscow state in all three parts - Great, Little and White Russia - is the only legitimate one, since the Moscow princes, and then the kings, descend from Alexander Nevsky, who “was the prince of Kiev from the Russian land, Alexander Yaroslavich Nevsky.” The term “Little Russian Ukraine” appeared in 1677 [source not specified 845 days] and then took root in the hetman’s office and chronicles. The terms “Little Russia” and “Little Russia” are used in the chronicle of Samuil Velichko, the chronograph according to the list of L. Bobolinsky, and “Treasury” by Ivan Galatovsky (1676).
However, on the geographical maps of the 18th century, published by the Russian Academy of Sciences in 1736-1738, and in the Russian Atlas of 1745, the name Little Russia does not appear.
After the liquidation of the hetmanate in 1764, the Little Russian province was created from part of the Left Bank Ukraine with an administrative center in the city of Glukhov. In 1775, the Little Russian and Kiev provinces were united, and the provincial center was moved to Kyiv. In 1781, the Little Russian province was divided into three governorates (provinces) - Chernigov, Novgorod-Seversk and Kiev. In 1796, the Little Russian province was recreated, Chernigov was appointed the provincial center, after which in 1802 it was again divided into two provinces: Poltava and Chernigov. The names Little Russia, Little Russian, Little Russians were used in relation to the entire southwestern region throughout the 19th and early 20th centuries.
Until 1917, the name Little Russia was semi-officially used to collectively designate the Volyn, Kyiv, Podolsk, Poltava, Kharkov and Chernigov provinces. This is exactly how Grigory Skovoroda called Left Bank Ukraine, mother and “Little Russia,” and Slobodskaya Ukraine his dear aunt, which indicated the absence of a derogatory connotation in the term “Little Russia.”
Taras Shevchenko in his personal diary (for 1857-1858) uses the words “Little Russia/Little Russian” 17 times and “Ukraine” only 4 times (he does not use the adjective “Ukrainian” at all); at the same time, in letters to like-minded Ukrainophiles 17 times “Ukraine” and 5 times “Little Russia/Little Russian”, and in his poetry he uses only the term “Ukraine”.
The cultural and historical specificity of Little Russia, as well as the regional patriotism of the Little Russians, were quite acceptable in the eyes of supporters of the concept of a large Russian nation as long as they did not conflict with this concept. Moreover, in the first half of the 19th century, Little Russian specificity aroused keen interest in St. Petersburg and Moscow as a more colorful, romantic version of Russianness.
Ukrainian historian Mikhail Maksimovich, in his work of 1868, refuted the myth that had formed in Polish historiography: attributing to the Moscow state the introduction of the name “Little Russia” after 1654, the division of the Russian people into “Rus, Ruthenians and Muscovites.” Ukrainian historians Nikolai Kostomarov, Dmitry Bagalei, Vladimir Antonovich recognized that “Little Russia” or “Southern Rus'” during the struggle between the Moscow State and the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth was an ethnonym for the “Little Russian/South Russian” people, and “Ukraine” was used as a toponym denoting outlying lands both states.

The story of how two failures of imperial cartography helped define the new Ukraine. Its appearance on the political map in the twentieth century was the result of the actions of the Ukrainian national movement, which tried to “charge” the ethnographic mass of Little Russians with modernist ideology. This movement was not powerful or popular... until time.

Historical geography is an interesting thing, and does it contain many intriguing topics. Some of them openly destroy our modern stereotypes.

Old maps can reveal to us the goals of lost worlds. For example, there is such a thing as “the creation of countries.” Even states, I note, countries.

Some things are a given for us: for example, the image of present-day Ukraine on the map from the times of the official Soviet “Ukrainian SSR and Moldavian SSR”.

A hundred years ago, ideas about space and the borders of Russia, Poland or Ukraine were different and, despite their otherness, also very different. What we see on the map as “Ukraine” was “Southern Russia” a hundred years ago, despite the fact that “Ukraine” also appeared on this map - but much smaller than it is now.

“Moldova” then was not at all where it is today, and they could argue with you about the existence of “Estonia” or “Latvia”, which were then absent from the map.

The existence of images of countries, states, and civilizations in the human imagination is usually discussed among researchers of “mental cartography.” I’m more interested in “real” cartography, which is what we’ll talk about here.

Today, various authors devote their research to who, when and how in the world and Europe saw or perceived Ukraine and Ukrainian things. This is, of course, interesting, but sometimes doubts creep through me: why the hell should some Mr. Smith, who lives in Devonshire, know something and even think about that Ukraine? For him, Inverness County is a “dark forest.” But at least he passed the county at the British school.

Should Herr Bauer somewhere in Württemberg know about it? In his "mental mapping" even the people of Mecklenburg are usually idiots. If he is interested in what it is (Ukraine and Ukrainians), he will take a map and look.

If he knows what he wants, then he will look for a state or country on a political map, a part of the state on an administrative map, a territory on a physical map, and a people on an ethnographic map. Some of the above mixed together - on a common geographic basis.

This, in fact, is still the limit of the methods of conventional visualization of distant spaces. Except now you can also look at a space image. This was the situation with “ordinary (not “mental”) cartography” both a hundred and a hundred and fifty years ago.

Could Herr Bauer have seen Ukraine on the map in sometime in 1850? Of course, he could, since the popular educational German atlases, which were copied in half of Europe, were shown on the map by the publishing house of Eustace Perthes as part of “European Russia”.

Could I have seen Ukrainians (though under the then name “Little Russians”)? Could: in the same atlas on the ethnographic map. Moreover, the latter contained the latest information, since barely eight years had passed since Pavel Safarik first showed the settlement of Little Russians on his ethno-lingual map “Slavic Lands”.

True, at that time the spaces of “Ukraine” and “Ukrainian-Little Russians” in the imagination of European cartographers did not coincide: the second was significantly larger than the first.

The reason was not that they were trying to somehow “humiliate” “Ukraine”. It’s just that cartographers are usually a scrupulous public, and in order to name some space something, reasons are needed. And the name “Ukraine”, as we know, in the twentieth century. did not have a clear spatial definition, since due to the local exception of the Sloboda-Ukrainian province in 1765-1780 and 1797-1835. There has never been an administrative unit called “Ukraine” or “Ukrainians” inhabiting it.

Theoretically, if the ethnonym “Ukrainians” had been established then, there would have been grounds to consider “Ukraine” as the habitat of Ukrainians, but the act of transition from “Russianism” and “Little Russians” to “Ukrainianism” took place only at the turn of the 19th-20th centuries as a consequence of the modern national project.

But if we had asked some Mr. Ivanov from Ryazan to find “Ukraine” on a Russian map, then, unlike a German or an Englishman, he would not have found it - because this word was not written on Russian maps. Or he would have to look for it on historical maps showing the expansion of the Russian state in the 16th-17th centuries. There really was a “Ukraine” there, but until the 19th century. she “does not survive”, dissolving into the Russian Empire.

Probably the only precedent for the presence of the toponym “Ukraine” on a Russian map of current realities is a map of Europe ca. 1700, which is kept in the Moscow Armory. But this is explained by the fact that it was simply a copied French map of Guillaume Sanson. On the original map there was the inscription “Ukraine is the country of the Cossacks.” Here - “Ukraine is a Cossack country.”

After this “trouble”, the name “Ukraine” is never used on Russian maps proper. The ethnic diversity of the empire's population contradicted the overall goal of its unification, and here graphic illusion also played a role. Therefore, the first official “Russian Atlas” of 1745, distributed in Europe, shows only provinces (and, for example, the territory of the Hetmanate was formalized in 1775).

In Western cartography, the name “Ukraine” has been traditional since the middle of the 17th century. concerned the middle Dnieper region on both sides of the Dnieper. The century-long division of this territory between Russia and Poland had almost no effect on its “integrity.”

Peter, who carried out the promotion in Europe of renaming Muscovy to Russia (in Western languages ​​identical to “Rus”), was completely satisfied with the term “Little Russia”. Our ancestors, as we know, did not have negative associations with this word.

On the map of the founder of the Navigation School, Jacob Bruce (the first Russian map distributed in Europe), this new toponym is indicated for the first time. It covers both the Right Bank Dnieper region and south-eastern Belarus, but later it spreads in Russian practice to the Left Bank, covering only the Hetmanate.

In Europe, it takes a long time to get used to Little Russia and it will only gain a foothold on local maps in a hundred years - perhaps with the introduction of the Little Russian Government General (1802-1835, Chernigov and Poltava provinces). Then it will be renamed, but the Kharkov region will be added to it, and the space of Little Russia in the zoning of the Russian Empire will finally be consolidated in these three provinces.

Educated Sloboda residents then called themselves “Ukrainians,” and the inhabitants of the former Hetmanate, somewhat disparagingly, called themselves “Little Russians.”

But on the maps of the Kingdom of Poland in its section “Ukraine” was written as the Right Bank, within the boundaries of Polish possessions. The left Russian bank remained with Little Russia. Polish cartography then significantly influenced Western European, primarily French, cartography.

These “wanderings” of Ukraine and Little Russia ultimately led to the fact that in the middle of the 19th century. a kind of “hybrid” has formed on Western European maps. Two names were written in one outline - both “Ukraine” and “Little Russia”, but it was larger than the Russian idea of ​​Little Russia, including also the right-bank Kyiv province.

This did not fit into the Russian “mental” - that is, administrative - cartography, since everything west of the Dnieper was perceived only as “former Poland”. Therefore, Kyiv was part of the Western Territory, the Poles considered it to be a “rising Kres”.

The “Polish problem” obviously overshadowed the “Ukrainians” for the imperial administration. Actually, this is how we can consider the results of the “migrations” of Ukraine and Little Russia on the maps before the stormy upheavals of the twentieth century.

But what finally caused the instant death of the 200-year-old toponym of Little Russia in 1917, after which it already (perhaps forever) disappears from the maps?

The first unconscious mistake of the imperial administration was the underestimation of the prospects for the “growth” of Little Russia throughout the entire ethnic area of ​​the Little Russians. Before, Little Russia was stuck in a narrow regional sense, never becoming the name of the country.

However, it is appropriate to ask: whose countries? What people? Since the imperial administration never thought that the political grievances of the Little Russians would ever transform into real separatism, it did not propose any local alternative for the “country of Little Russians” or any political geographical project alternative to the Ukrainian one.

For example, call the entire area of ​​residence of Little Russians from the Carpathians to the Caucasus “Little Russia”. On my part, this, of course, is only a fantastic assumption, incompatible with the then realities of the empire.

The only possible “country” of the Little Russians was Mother Russia, so no one contributed (and, I suspect, did not even think about it) for the Little Russians to perceive as their emotional fatherland in all their lands not “Ukraine” (clearly associated with the “South Russian separatism "and" Mazeppism "), and for example -" Greater Little Russia from Xiang to Don ".

And they would, perhaps, remain loyal Little Russians without being renamed with a clearly oppositional political connotation - in “Ukrainian”. Therefore, Little Russia never became a country, remaining a region

After all, answering the question “where do Little Russians live?” it was necessary to start a long list: in Little Russia, the Southwestern Territory, New Russia, Southern Russia, in Austrian Galicia, Bukovina and Subcarpathian Rus, in the Kuban, in the Uriankhai Territory, Canada, etc.

The “incompleteness” of Little Russia is clearly visible in a simple statement in the corresponding volume of “The Complete Geographical Description of Our Fatherland” (1903): “Little Russia is the left bank of Ukraine.” Here's a nail for you...

And the “conscious Ukrainian” already had his own country, because he believed that all the lands on which Ukrainians live are “Ukrainian lands”, and “Ukrainian lands” are the “country of Ukraine”. And which states it is part of is of course important, but that’s a second question. Poland was part of three empires, but remained “the country of Poland”, despite all the retouching of the map by its owners.

The desire to “teach a lesson” to the rebellious Poles a little in the supposedly non-political field of ethnography led to another, an unconscious “blunder” of imperial cartography.

According to the Russian authorities, “historical Poland”, to which the Polish separatists sought to return, obviously contained “original Russian lands”, therefore representatives of two tribes of the Russian people lived there - Little Russians and Belarusians. It was only the gentry in the Western Region who were Polish.

If we clearly draw the ethnic boundary, it will be clear that “ethnic Poland” looks significantly less than “historical” Poland, and the latter’s claims seem unfounded from the point of view of modern science. And it will be clear that most of “historical Poland” is obvious and undeniable Russia.

This is also indicative for us in line with the statement that the process of “drawing countries” is an interesting and unpredictable thing. About the size of Poland and Russia in the 19th century. one could make quite different assumptions...

Who could complete such a task, which, of course, was not formulated as an item in the “five-year plan”, but was necessary in the long term? Objectively, there were two executors for this mission, more interested in studying Russia and its borders - the Imperial Russian Geographical Society and the General Staff.

In 1851, academician Peter Köppen published the first Russian map of the ethnic composition of the empire (“by tribal affiliation”), on which the Eastern Slavs are simply a white background, and only foreigners are indicated.

But for the distinction in the Western Territory, more nuances were needed. How to distinguish peoples? By confession? The attempts were unsuccessful, since it turned out that not only Poles are Catholics. Self-identification? The state of education and ethnic identity in those parts was frankly neglected and confused. Even priests could identify themselves as “Chornoruss” or “Buzhans”.

We settled on the language criterion as the most reliable. Those who speak the Belarusian or Little Russian dialect are Russian, those who speak Polish are Pole. To do this, it was necessary to pay more attention to language during statistical studies. Both academic scientists and military statisticians have been doing this for years.

And the gradual drawing of the ethno-linguistic border from west to east marked not only the Poles, as we can guess, but also the Belarusians and Little Russians.

The collection of information about the language (including “tribal dialects”) during all-Russian statistical “revisions” (predecessors of the census) made it possible in the 1860-1870s to already have a clear idea of ​​the ethnic area of ​​the Little Russians within the Russian Empire - that is, most of that , which will become the “country of Ukraine”.

The results of this (ethnographic maps of Russia by the military man and ethnographer Alexander Rittich) since 1877 have been included in the most widespread Russian educational atlas - published by A. Ilyin, close to the General Staff. And over the next forty years, every Russian schoolchild could simply learn about the area of ​​residence of the Little Russians, so the territorial claims of the Central Rada in 1917 could become some kind of “news” only for those who did not study well. And these “claims” could only be called “Ukraine” and not “Little Russia”.

Of course, I did not seek to prove here that the emergence of modern Ukraine in 1917 is only the result of an underestimation of certain “ethnographic realities” by the Russian authorities of the 19th century, or by scientists or the military. They simply did their job efficiently - but no one knows the future consequences of their actions.

The splash of Ukraine on the political map in the twentieth century. was previously the result of the actions of the Ukrainian national movement, trying to “charge” the ethnographic mass of Little Russians with a modern national ideology. He was not, as we know, powerful or too “popular” before his time, but in any case, his potential turned out to be frankly underestimated by the imperial power.

In this sense, perhaps, the Russian researcher of the “Ukrainian question” Alexey Miller was right when he wrote that this is not only a story of Ukrainian success, but also a story of failure of the empire. And the question of whether this “success” or “failure” was programmed will remain an area of ​​hypothesis and debate.

At the beginning of the 19th century. The borders of Russian possessions in North America and northern Europe were officially consolidated. The St. Petersburg Conventions of 1824 determined the boundaries with American () and English possessions. The Americans pledged not to settle north of 54°40" N on the coast, and the Russians - to the south. The border of Russian and British possessions ran along the coast from 54° N to 60° N at a distance of 10 miles from the ocean's edge , taking into account all the bends of the coast.The St. Petersburg Russian-Swedish Convention of 1826 established the Russian-Norwegian border.

Academic expeditions of V. M. Severgin and A. I. Sherer in 1802-1804. to the north-west of Russia, Belarus, the Baltic states and were devoted mainly to mineralogical research.

The period of geographical discoveries in the populated European part of Russia is over. In the 19th century expeditionary research and its scientific synthesis were mainly thematic. Of these, we can name the zoning (mainly agricultural) of European Russia into eight latitudinal stripes, proposed by E. F. Kankrin in 1834; botanical and geographical zoning of European Russia by R. E. Trautfetter (1851); studies of the natural conditions of the Caspian Sea, the state of fishing and other industries there (1851-1857), carried out by K. M. Baer; N.A.’s work (1855) on the fauna of the Voronezh province, in which he showed deep connections between the fauna and physical-geographical conditions, and also established patterns of distribution of forests and steppes in connection with the nature of the relief and soils; classical soil studies of V.V. in the zone, begun in 1877; a special expedition led by V.V. Dokuchaev, organized by the Forestry Department to comprehensively study the nature of the steppes and find ways to combat. In this expedition, a stationary research method was used for the first time.

Caucasus

The annexation of the Caucasus to Russia necessitated the study of new Russian lands, the knowledge of which was poor. In 1829, the Caucasian expedition of the Academy of Sciences, led by A. Ya. Kupfer and E. X. Lenz, explored the Rocky Range in the Greater Caucasus system and determined the exact heights of many mountain peaks of the Caucasus. In 1844-1865 The natural conditions of the Caucasus were studied by G.V. Abikh. He studied in detail the orography and geology of the Greater and Dagestan, the Colchis Lowland, and compiled the first general orographic diagram of the Caucasus.

Ural

Among the works that developed the geographical understanding of the Urals are the description of the Middle and Southern Urals, made in 1825-1836. A. Ya. Kupfer, E. K. Hoffman, G. P. Gelmersen; publication of “Natural History of the Orenburg Region” by E. A. Eversman (1840), which provides a comprehensive description of the nature of this territory with a well-founded natural division; expedition of the Russian Geographical Society to the Northern and Polar Urals (E.K. Goffman, V.G. Bragin), during which the peak of Konstantinov Kamen was discovered, the Pai-Khoi ridge was discovered and explored, an inventory was compiled, which served as the basis for drawing up a map of the explored part of the Urals . A notable event was the journey in 1829 of the outstanding German naturalist A. Humboldt to the Urals, Rudny Altai and the shores of the Caspian Sea.

Siberia

In the 19th century Research continued in Siberia, many areas of which were very poorly studied. In Altai in the 1st half of the century the sources of the river were discovered. Katun, explored (1825-1836, A. A. Bunge, F. V. Gebler), the Chulyshman and Abakan rivers (1840-1845, P. A. Chikhachev). During his travels, P. A. Chikhachev carried out physical, geographical and geological research.

In 1843-1844. A.F. Middendorf collected extensive material on orography, geology, climate, and the organic world of Eastern Siberia and the Far East; for the first time, information was obtained about the nature of Taimyr and the Stanovoy Range. Based on the travel materials, A. F. Middendorf wrote in 1860-1878. published “Journey to the North and East of Siberia” - one of the best examples of systematic reports on the nature of the explored territories. This work provides characteristics of all the main natural components, as well as the population, shows the relief features of Central Siberia, the uniqueness of its climate, presents the results of the first scientific study of permafrost, and gives the zoogeographic division of Siberia.

In 1853-1855. R. K. Maak and A. K. Sondgagen investigated the geology and life of the population of the Central Yakut Plain, the Central Siberian Plateau, the Vilyui Plateau, and surveyed the river.

In 1855-1862. The Siberian expedition of the Russian Geographical Society carried out topographic surveys, astronomical determinations, geological and other studies in the south of Eastern Siberia.

A large amount of research was carried out in the second half of the century in the mountains of southern Eastern Siberia. In 1858, geographical research in the Sayan Mountains was carried out by L. E. Schwartz. During them, topographer Kryzhin carried out a topographic survey. In 1863-1866. research in Eastern Siberia and the Far East was carried out by P. A. Kropotkin, who paid special attention to relief and. He explored the Oka, Amur, Ussuri rivers, ridges, and discovered the Patom Highlands. The Khamar-Daban ridge, coastline, Angara region, Selenga basin, were explored by A. L. Chekanovsky (1869-1875), I. D. Chersky (1872-1882). In addition, A. L. Chekanovsky explored the basins of the Lower Tunguska and Olenyok rivers, and I. D. Chersky explored the upper reaches of the Lower Tunguska. A geographical, geological and botanical survey of the Eastern Sayan was carried out during the Sayan expedition by N.P. Bobyr, L.A. Yachevsky, and Ya.P. Prein. The study of Sayanskaya in 1903 was continued by V.L. Popov. In 1910, he also carried out a geographical study of the border strip between Russia and China from Altai to Kyakhta.

In 1891-1892 During his last expedition, I. D. Chersky explored the Nerskoye Plateau and discovered three high mountain ranges behind the Verkhoyansk Range: Tas-Kystabyt, Ulakhan-Chistai and Tomuskhay.

Far East

Research continued on Sakhalin, the Kuril Islands and the adjacent seas. In 1805, I. F. Kruzenshtern explored the eastern and northern shores of Sakhalin and the northern Kuril Islands, and in 1811, V. M. Golovnin made an inventory of the middle and southern parts of the Kuril ridge. In 1849, G.I. Nevelskoy confirmed and proved the navigability of the Amur mouth for large ships. In 1850-1853. G.I. Nevelsky and others continued their research on Sakhalin and adjacent parts of the mainland. In 1860-1867 Sakhalin was explored by F.B., P.P. Glen, G.W. Shebunin. In 1852-1853 N. K Boshnyak explored and described the basins of the Amgun and Tym rivers, lakes Everon and Chukchagirskoe, the Bureinsky ridge, and Khadzhi Bay (Sovetskaya Gavan).

In 1842-1845. A.F. Middendorf and V.V. Vaganov explored the Shantar Islands.

In the 50-60s. XIX century The coastal parts of Primorye were explored: in 1853 -1855. I. S. Unkovsky discovered the bays of Posyet and Olga; in 1860-1867 V. Babkin surveyed the northern shore of the Sea of ​​Japan and Peter the Great Bay. The Lower Amur and the northern part of Sikhote-Alin were explored in 1850-1853. G. I. Nevelsky, N. K. Boshnyak, D. I. Orlov and others; in 1860-1867 - A. Budishchev. In 1858, M. Venyukov explored the Ussuri River. In 1863-1866. and Ussuri were studied by P.A. Kropotkin. In 1867-1869 made a major trip around the Ussuri region. He conducted comprehensive studies of the nature of the Ussuri and Suchan river basins and crossed the Sikhote-Alin ridge.

middle Asia

As individual parts are attached and Central Asia to the Russian Empire, and sometimes preceding it, Russian geographers, biologists and other scientists explored and studied their nature. In 1820-1836. the organic world of Mugodzhar, General Syrt and the Ustyurt plateau was studied by E. A. Eversman. In 1825-1836 carried out a description of the eastern coast of the Caspian Sea, the Mangystau and Bolshoi Balkhan ridges, the Krasnovodsk plateau G. S. Karelin and I. Blaramberg. In 1837-1842. A.I. Shrenk studied Eastern Kazakhstan.

In 1840-1845 The Balkhash-Alakol basin was discovered (A.I. Shrenk, T.F. Nifantiev). From 1852 to 1863 T.F. Nifantiev carried out the first surveys of lakes, Zaysan. In 1848-1849 A.I. Butakov carried out the first survey, a number of islands and Chernyshev Bay were discovered.

Valuable scientific results, especially in the field of biogeography, were brought by the 1857 expedition of I. G. Borschov and N. A. Severtsov to Mugodzhary, the Emba River basin and the Big Barsuki sands. In 1865, I. G. Borshchov continued research on the vegetation and natural conditions of the Aral-Caspian region. He considered steppes and deserts as natural geographical complexes and analyzed the mutual relationships between relief, moisture, soils and vegetation.

Since the 1840s exploration of the highlands of Central Asia began. In 1840-1845 A.A. Leman and Ya.P. Yakovlev discovered the Turkestan and Zeravshan ranges. In 1856-1857 P.P. Semenov laid the foundation for the scientific study of the Tien Shan. The heyday of research in the mountains of Central Asia occurred during the period of the expeditionary leadership of P. P. Semenov (Semyonov-Tyan-Shansky). In 1860-1867 N.A. Severtsov explored the Kirghiz and Karatau ridges, discovered the Karzhantau, Pskem and Kakshaal-Too ridges in 1868-1871. A.P. Fedchenko explored the Tien Shan, Kukhistan, Alai and Trans-Alai ranges. N.A. Severtsov, A.I. Scassi discovered the Rushansky ridge and the Fedchenko glacier (1877-1879). The research carried out made it possible to identify the Pamirs as a separate mountain system.

Research in the desert regions of Central Asia was carried out by N. A. Severtsov (1866-1868) and A. P. Fedchenko in 1868-1871. (Kyzylkum desert), V. A. Obruchev in 1886-1888. (Karakum desert and ancient Uzboy valley).

Comprehensive studies of the Aral Sea in 1899-1902. spent .

North and Arctic

At the beginning of the 19th century. The discovery of the New Siberian Islands ended. In 1800-1806. Y. Sannikov made an inventory of the islands of Stolbovoy, Faddeevsky, and New Siberia. In 1808, Belkov discovered an island, which received the name of its discoverer - Belkovsky. In 1809-1811 visited by the expedition of M. M. Gedenstrom. In 1815, M. Lyakhov discovered the islands of Vasilyevsky and Semyonovsky. In 1821-1823 P.F. Anjou and P.I. Ilyin carried out instrumental research, culminating in the compilation of an accurate map of the New Siberian Islands, explored and described the islands of Semenovsky, Vasilyevsky, Stolbovoy, the coast between the mouths of the Indigirka and Olenyok rivers, and discovered the East Siberian polynya.

In 1820-1824. F. P. Wrangel, in very difficult natural conditions, traveled through the north of Siberia and the Arctic Ocean, explored and described the coast from the mouth of the Indigirka to the Kolyuchinskaya Bay (Chukchi Peninsula), and predicted the existence.

Research was carried out in Russian possessions in North America: in 1816, O. E. Kotzebue discovered a large bay in the Chukchi Sea off the western coast of Alaska, named after him. In 1818-1819 East Coast The Bering Sea was explored by P.G. Korsakovsky and P.A. Ustyugov, the Alaska-Yukon delta was discovered. In 1835-1838. The lower and middle reaches of the Yukon were studied by A. Glazunov and V.I. Malakhov, and in 1842-1843. - Russian naval officer L. A. Zagoskin. He also described the interior regions of Alaska. In 1829-1835 The coast of Alaska was explored by F.P. Wrangel and D.F. Zarembo. In 1838 A.F. Kashevarov described the northwestern coast of Alaska, and P.F. Kolmakov discovered the Innoko River and the Kuskokwim (Kuskokwim) ridge. In 1835-1841. D.F. Zarembo and P. Mitkov completed the discovery of the Alexander Archipelago.

The archipelago was intensively explored. In 1821-1824. F. P. Litke on the brig “ New Earth” explored, described and mapped the western coast of Novaya Zemlya. Attempts to inventory and map the eastern coast of Novaya Zemlya were unsuccessful. In 1832-1833 the first inventory of the entire east coast South Island Novaya Zemlya was made by P.K. Pakhtusov. In 1834-1835 P.K. Pakhtusov and in 1837-1838. A.K. Tsivolka and S.A. Moiseev described the eastern coast of the North Island up to 74.5° N. sh., the Matochkin Shar Strait is described in detail, Pakhtusov Island is discovered. A description of the northern part of Novaya Zemlya was made only in 1907-1911. V. A. Rusanov. Expeditions led by I. N. Ivanov in 1826-1829. managed to compile an inventory of the southwestern part of the Kara Sea from Nos to the mouth of the Ob. The research carried out made it possible to begin the study of vegetation, fauna and the geological structure of Novaya Zemlya (K. M. Baer, ​​1837). In 1834-1839, especially during a major expedition in 1837, A.I. Shrenk explored the Czech Bay, the coast of the Kara Sea, the Timan Ridge, the island, the Pai-Khoi ridge, and the polar Urals. Explorations of this area in 1840-1845. continued A.A. Keyserling, who conducted the survey and explored the Timan Ridge and the Pechora Lowland. He conducted comprehensive studies of the nature of the Taimyr Peninsula and the North Siberian Lowland in 1842-1845. A. F. Middendorf. In 1847-1850 The Russian Geographical Society organized an expedition to the Northern and Polar Urals, during which the Pai-Khoi ridge was thoroughly explored.

In 1867, Wrangel Island was discovered, an inventory of the southern coast of which was made by the captain of the American whaling ship T. Long. In 1881, the American researcher R. Berry described the eastern, western and most of the northern coast of the island, and the interior of the island was explored for the first time.

In 1901, the Russian icebreaker “ ”, under the command of S. O. Makarov, visited. In 1913-1914 A Russian expedition led by G. Ya. Sedov wintered on the archipelago. At the same time, a group of participants from G.L. Brusilov’s expedition in distress on the ship “St. Anna”, headed by navigator V.I. Albanov. Despite the difficult conditions, when all energy was aimed at preserving life, V.I. Albanov proved that Petermann Land and King Oscar Land, which appeared on the map of J. Payer, do not exist.

In 1878-1879 During two navigations, a Russian-Swedish expedition led by the Swedish scientist N.A.E. on the small sailing-steam vessel “Vega” was the first to navigate the Northern Sea Route from west to east. This proved the possibility of navigation along the entire Eurasian Arctic coast.

In 1913, the Northern Hydrographic Expedition under the leadership of B. A. Vilkitsky on the icebreaking steamships “Taimyr” and “Vaigach”, exploring the possibilities of passing the route north of Taimyr, encountered solid ice and, following their edge to the north, discovered islands called Zemlya Emperor Nicholas II (now Severnaya Zemlya), approximately mapping its eastern parts, and next year - southern shores, as well as the island of Tsarevich Alexei (now -). The western and northern shores remained completely unknown.

Russian Geographical Society

The Russian Geographical Society (RGS), founded in 1845, (since 1850 - the Imperial Russian Geographical Society - IRGO) has great merit in the development of domestic cartography.

In 1881, the American polar explorer J. DeLong discovered the islands of Jeannette, Henrietta and Bennett northeast of the island of New Siberia. This group of islands was named after its discoverer. In 1885-1886 A study of the Arctic coast between the Lena and Kolyma rivers and the New Siberian Islands was carried out by A. A. Bunge and E. V. Toll.

Already at the beginning of 1852, it published its first twenty-five-verst (1:1,050,000) map of the Pai-Khoi coastal ridge, compiled based on materials from the Ural Expedition of the Russian Geographical Society of 1847-1850. For the first time, the Pai Khoi coastal ridge was depicted with great accuracy and detail.

The Geographical Society also published 40-verst maps of the river areas of the Amur, the southern part of the Lena and Yenisei and about. Sakhalin on 7 sheets (1891).

Sixteen large expeditions of the IRGO, led by N. M. Przhevalsky, G. N. Potanin, M. V. Pevtsov, G. E. Grumm-Grzhimailo, V. I. Roborovsky, P. K. Kozlov and V. A. Obruchev, made a great contribution to the filming of Central Asia. During these expeditions, 95,473 km were covered and filmed (of which over 30,000 km were accounted for by N. M. Przhevalsky), 363 astronomical points were determined and the altitudes of 3,533 points were measured. The position of the main mountain ranges and river systems, as well as lake basins of Central Asia, was clarified. All this significantly contributed to the creation of a modern physical map of Central Asia.

The heyday of the expeditionary activities of the IRGO occurred in 1873-1914, when the head of the society was Grand Duke Constantine, and P.P. Semyonov-Tyan-Shansky was the vice-chairman. During this period, expeditions were organized to Central Asia and other regions of the country; two polar stations were created. Since the mid-1880s. The expeditionary activities of the society are increasingly specialized in certain fields - glaciology, limnology, geophysics, biogeography, etc.

IRGO made a great contribution to the study of the country's topography. To process the leveling and produce a hypsometric map, the IRGO hypsometric commission was created. In 1874, IRGO carried out, under the leadership of A. A. Tillo, the Aral-Caspian leveling: from Karatamak (on the northwestern shore of the Aral Sea) through Ustyurt to the Dead Kultuk Bay of the Caspian Sea, and in 1875 and 1877. Siberian leveling: from the village of Zverinogolovskaya in the Orenburg region to Lake Baikal. The materials of the hypsometric commission were used by A. A. Tillo to compile the “map of European Russia” on a scale of 60 versts per inch (1: 2,520,000), published by the Ministry of Railways in 1889. More than 50 thousand elevation marks were used to compile it , obtained as a result of leveling. The map revolutionized ideas about the structure of the relief of this territory. It presented in a new way the orography of the European part of the country, which has not changed in its main features to this day; the Central Russian and Volga uplands were depicted for the first time. In 1894, the Forestry Department, under the leadership of A. A. Tillo with the participation of S. N., organized an expedition to study the sources of the main rivers of European Russia, which provided extensive material on relief and hydrography (in particular, on lakes).

The military topographical service carried out, with the active participation of the Imperial Russian Geographical Society, a large number of pioneering reconnaissance surveys in the Far East, Siberia, Kazakhstan and Central Asia, during which maps were drawn up of many territories that were previously “white spots” on the map.

Mapping the territory in the 19th and early 20th centuries.

Topographic and geodetic works

In 1801-1804. “His Majesty’s Own Map Depot” released the first state multi-sheet (107 sheets) map at a scale of 1:840,000, covering almost all of European Russia and called the “Cental-sheet Map”. Its content was based mainly on materials from the General Survey.

In 1798-1804. The Russian General Staff, under the leadership of Major General F. F. Steinhel (Steingel), with the extensive use of Swedish-Finnish topographic officers, carried out a large-scale topographic survey of the so-called Old Finland, i.e., the areas annexed to Russia along the Nystadt (1721) and Abosky (1743) to the world. The survey materials, preserved in the form of a handwritten four-volume atlas, were widely used in the compilation of various maps at the beginning of the 19th century.

After 1809, the topographic services of Russia and Finland were united. At the same time, the Russian army received a ready-made educational institution for training professional topographers - a military school founded in 1779 in the village of Gappaniemi. On the basis of this school, on March 16, 1812, the Gappanyem Topographical Corps was established, which became the first special military topographic and geodetic educational institution in the Russian Empire.

In 1815, the ranks of the Russian army were replenished with topographical officers of the General Quartermaster of the Polish Army.

Since 1819, topographic surveys began in Russia on a scale of 1:21,000, based on triangulation and carried out mainly using scales. In 1844 they were replaced by surveys at a scale of 1:42,000.

On January 28, 1822, the Corps of Military Topographers was established at the General Headquarters of the Russian Army and the Military Topographic Depot. State topographic mapping became one of the main tasks of military topographers. The remarkable Russian surveyor and cartographer F. F. Schubert was appointed the first director of the Corps of Military Topographers.

In 1816-1852. In Russia, the largest triangulation work of that time was carried out, extending 25°20" along the meridian (together with Scandinavian triangulation).

Under the leadership of F. F. Schubert and K. I. Tenner, intensive instrumental and semi-instrumental (route) surveys began, mainly in the western and northwestern provinces of European Russia. Based on materials from these surveys in the 20-30s. XIX century semitopographic (semi-topographic) maps of the provinces were compiled and engraved on a scale of 4-5 versts per inch.

The military topographic depot began in 1821 to compile a survey topographic map of European Russia on a scale of 10 versts per inch (1:420,000), which was extremely necessary not only for the military, but also for all civilian departments. The special ten-verst map of European Russia is known in the literature as the Schubert Map. Work on creating the map continued intermittently until 1839. It was published on 59 sheets and three flaps (or half-sheets).

A large amount of work was carried out by the Corps of Military Topographers in different parts of the country. In 1826-1829 were compiled detailed maps scale 1:210,000 Baku province, Talysh Khanate, Karabakh province, plan of Tiflis, etc.

In 1828-1832. A survey of Wallachia was also carried out, which became a model of work of its time, since it was based on a sufficient number of astronomical points. All maps were compiled into a 1:16,000 atlas. The total survey area reached 100 thousand square meters. verst.

Since the 30s. Geodetic and boundary work began to be carried out on. Geodetic points carried out in 1836-1838. triangulations became the basis for creating accurate topographic maps of Crimea. Geodetic networks developed in Smolensk, Moscow, Mogilev, Tver, Novgorod provinces and other areas.

In 1833, the head of the KVT, General F. F. Schubert, organized an unprecedented chronometric expedition in the Baltic Sea. As a result of the expedition, the longitudes of 18 points were determined, which, together with 22 points related to them trigonometrically, provided a reliable basis for surveying the coast and soundings of the Baltic Sea.

From 1857 to 1862 under the leadership and funds of the IRGO, work was carried out at the Military Topographical Depot to compile and publish on 12 sheets a general map of European Russia and the Caucasus region on a scale of 40 versts per inch (1: 1,680,000) with an explanatory note. On the advice of V. Ya. Struve, the map for the first time in Russia was created in the Gaussian projection, and Pulkovsky was taken as the prime meridian on it. In 1868, the map was published, and later it was reprinted several times.

In subsequent years, a five-verst map on 55 sheets, a twenty-verst map and an orographic forty-verst map of the Caucasus were published.

Among the best cartographic works of the IRGO is the “Map of the Aral Sea and the Khiva Khanate with their surroundings” compiled by Ya. V. Khanykov (1850). The map was published in French by the Paris Geographical Society and, on the proposal of A. Humboldt, was awarded the Prussian Order of the Red Eagle, 2nd degree.

The Caucasian military topographic department, under the leadership of General I. I. Stebnitsky, conducted reconnaissance in Central Asia along the eastern shore of the Caspian Sea.

In 1867, a Cartographic Establishment was opened at the Military Topographical Department of the General Staff. Together with the private cartographic establishment of A. A. Ilyin, opened in 1859, they were the direct predecessors of modern domestic cartographic factories.

A special place among the various products of the Caucasian WTO was occupied by relief maps. The large relief map was completed in 1868, and was exhibited at the Paris Exhibition in 1869. This map is made for horizontal distances on a scale of 1:420,000, and for vertical distances - 1:84,000.

The Caucasian military topographic department under the leadership of I. I. Stebnitsky compiled a 20-verst map of the Trans-Caspian region based on astronomical, geodetic and topographical work.

Work was also carried out on topographic and geodetic preparation of the territories of the Far East. Thus, in 1860, the position of eight points was determined near the western coast of the Sea of ​​Japan, and in 1863, 22 points were determined in Peter the Great Bay.

The expansion of the territory of the Russian Empire was reflected in many maps and atlases published at this time. Such in particular is the “General Map of the Russian Empire and the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Finland annexed to it” from the “Geographical Atlas of the Russian Empire, the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Finland” by V. P. Pyadyshev (St. Petersburg, 1834).

Since 1845, one of the main tasks of the Russian military topographical service has been the creation of a Military Topographical Map of Western Russia on a scale of 3 versts per inch. By 1863, 435 sheets of military topographical maps had been published, and by 1917 - 517 sheets. On this map, the relief was conveyed by strokes.

In 1848-1866. under the leadership of Lieutenant General A.I. Mende, surveys were carried out aimed at creating topographic boundary maps, atlases and descriptions for all provinces of European Russia. During this period, work was carried out on an area of ​​about 345,000 square meters. verst. Tver, Ryazan, Tambov and Vladimir provinces were mapped on a scale of one verst per inch (1:42,000), Yaroslavl - two versts per inch (1:84,000), Simbirsk and Nizhny Novgorod - three versts per inch (1:126,000) and Penza province - on a scale of eight versts per inch (1:336,000). Based on the results of the survey, IRGO published multicolor topographic boundary atlases of Tver and Ryazan provinces(1853-1860) on a scale of 2 versts per inch (1:84,000) and a map of the Tver province on a scale of 8 versts per inch (1:336,000).

The Mende filming had an undoubted influence on the further improvement of state mapping methods. In 1872, the Military Topographical Department of the General Staff began work on updating the three-verst map, which actually led to the creation of a new standard Russian topographic map on a scale of 2 versts in an inch (1:84,000), which was a most detailed source of information about the area, used in troops and the national economy until the 30s. XX century A two-verst military topographic map was published for the Kingdom of Poland, parts of the Crimea and the Caucasus, as well as the Baltic states and areas around Moscow and. This was one of the first Russian topographic maps on which the relief was depicted as contour lines.

In 1869-1885. A detailed topographic survey of Finland was carried out, which was the beginning of the creation of a state topographic map on a scale of one mile per inch - the highest achievement of pre-revolutionary military topography in Russia. Single-versus maps covered the territory of Poland, the Baltic states, southern Finland, Crimea, the Caucasus and parts of southern Russia north of Novocherkassk.

By the 60s. XIX century The Special Map of European Russia by F. F. Schubert on a scale of 10 versts per inch is very outdated. In 1865, the editorial commission appointed captain of the General Staff I. A. Strelbitsky as the responsible executor of the project for drawing up a Special Map of European Russia and its editor, under whose leadership the final development of all instructional documents was carried out, which determined the methods of compilation, preparation for publication and publication of the new cartographic works. In 1872, the compilation of all 152 sheets of the map was completed. The ten verstka was reprinted many times and partially supplemented; in 1903 it consisted of 167 sheets. This map was widely used not only for military purposes, but also for scientific, practical and cultural purposes.

By the end of the century, the work of the Corps of Military Topographers continued to create new maps for sparsely populated areas, including the Far East and Manchuria. During this time, several reconnaissance detachments covered more than 12 thousand miles, performing route and visual surveys. Based on their results, topographic maps were later compiled on a scale of 2, 3, 5 and 20 versts per inch.

In 1907, a special commission was created at the General Staff to develop a plan for future topographic and geodetic work in European and Asian Russia, chaired by the head of the KVT, General N. D. Artamonov. It was decided to develop the new 1st class triangulation according to a specific program proposed by General I. I. Pomerantsev. KVT began implementing the program in 1910. By 1914, the bulk of the work was completed.

By the beginning of the First World War, a large volume of large-scale topographic surveys had been completed in the entire territory of Poland, in the south of Russia (triangle Chisinau, Galati, Odessa), in the Petrograd and Vyborg provinces partially; on a verst scale in Livonia, Petrograd, Minsk provinces, and partly in Transcaucasia, on the northeastern coast of the Black Sea and in Crimea; on a two-verst scale - in the north-west of Russia, east of the survey sites on the half- and verst-scale.

The results of topographic surveys of previous and pre-war years made it possible to compile and publish a large volume of topographic and special military maps: half-verst map of the Western border area (1:21,000); verst map of the Western border space, Crimea and Transcaucasia (1:42,000); military topographic two-verst map (1:84,000), three-verst map (1:126,000) with relief expressed by strokes; semi-topographic 10-verst map of European Russia (1:420,000); military road 25-verst map of European Russia (1:1,050,000); 40-verst Strategic Map (1:1,680,000); maps of the Caucasus and neighboring foreign countries.

In addition to the listed maps, the Military Topographical Department of the Main Directorate of the General Staff (GUGSH) prepared maps of Turkestan, Central Asia and adjacent states, Western Siberia, the Far East, as well as maps of all of Asian Russia.

Over the 96 years of its existence (1822-1918), the corps of military topographers completed an enormous amount of astronomical, geodetic and cartographic work: identified geodetic points - 63,736; astronomical points (by latitude and longitude) - 3900; 46 thousand km of leveling passages were laid; Instrumental topographic surveys were carried out on a geodetic basis on various scales over an area of ​​7,425,319 km2, and semi-instrumental and visual surveys were carried out over an area of ​​506,247 km2. In 1917, the Russian Army supplied 6,739 types of maps of different scales.

In general, by 1917, a huge amount of field survey material had been obtained, a number of remarkable cartographic works had been created, but the coverage of the territory of Russia with topographic survey was uneven, and a significant part of the territory remained unexplored in topographic terms.

Exploration and mapping of seas and oceans

Russia's achievements in studying the World Ocean were significant. One of the important incentives for these studies in the 19th century, as before, was the need to ensure the functioning of Russian overseas possessions in Alaska. To supply these colonies, round-the-world expeditions were regularly equipped, which, starting from the first voyage in 1803-1806. on the ships “Nadezhda” and “Neva” under the leadership of Yu. V. Lisyansky, they made many remarkable geographical discoveries and significantly increased the cartographic knowledge of the World Ocean.

In addition to the hydrographic work carried out almost annually off the coast of Russian America by officers of the Russian Navy, participants in round-the-world expeditions, employees of the Russian-American Company, among whom were such brilliant hydrographers and scientists as F. P. Wrangel, A. K. Etolin and M D. Tebenkov, continuously expanded knowledge about the North Pacific Ocean and improved navigation maps of these areas. Particularly great was the contribution of M.D. Tebenkov, who compiled the most detailed “Atlas of the Northwestern coast of America from Cape Corrientes and the Aleutian Islands with the addition of some places on the Northeastern coast of Asia,” published by the St. Petersburg Maritime Academy in 1852.

In parallel with the study of the northern part of the Pacific Ocean, Russian hydrographers actively explored the coasts of the Arctic Ocean, thus contributing to the finalization of geographical ideas about the polar regions of Eurasia and laying the foundations for the subsequent development of the Arctic Ocean. sea ​​route. Thus, most of the coasts and islands of the Barents and Kara Seas were described and mapped in the 20-30s. XIX century expeditions of F.P. Litke, P.K. Pakhtusov, K.M. Baer and A.K. Tsivolka, who laid the foundations for the physical-geographical study of these seas and the Novaya Zemlya archipelago. To solve the problem of developing transport links between European Pomerania, expeditions were equipped for a hydrographic inventory of the coast from Kanin Nos to the mouth of the Ob River, the most effective of which were the Pechora expedition of I. N. Ivanov (1824) and the inventory of I. N. Ivanov and I. A. Berezhnykh (1826-1828). The maps they compiled had a solid astronomical and geodetic basis. Research of sea coasts and islands in northern Siberia at the beginning of the 19th century. were largely stimulated by the discoveries by Russian industrialists of islands in the Novosibirsk archipelago, as well as the search for mysterious northern lands (“Sannikov Land”), islands north of the mouth of the Kolyma (“Andreev Land”), etc. In 1808-1810. During the expedition led by M. M. Gedenshtrom and P. Pshenitsyn, which explored the islands of New Siberia, Faddeevsky, Kotelny and the strait between the latter, a map of the Novosibirsk archipelago as a whole, as well as the mainland sea coasts between the mouths of the Yana and Kolyma rivers, was created for the first time. For the first time, a detailed geographical description of the islands has been completed. In the 20s the Yanskaya (1820-1824) expedition under the leadership of P.F. Anzhu and the Kolyma expedition (1821-1824) under the leadership of F.P. Wrangel were sent to the same areas. These expeditions carried out the work program of M. M. Gedenstrom’s expedition on an expanded scale. They were supposed to survey the coastline from the Lena River to the Bering Strait. The main merit of the expedition was the compilation of a more accurate map of the entire continental coast of the Arctic Ocean from the Olenyok River to Kolyuchinskaya Bay, as well as maps of the group of Novosibirsk, Lyakhovsky and Bear Islands. In the eastern part of the Wrangel map was designated according to data local residents, an island with the inscription “Mountains seen from Cape Yakan in summer.” This island was also depicted on maps in the atlases of I. F. Krusenstern (1826) and G. A. Sarychev (1826). In 1867, it was discovered by the American navigator T. Long and, in commemoration of the merits of the remarkable Russian polar explorer, was named after Wrangel. The results of the expeditions of P. F. Anjou and F. P. Wrangel were summarized in 26 handwritten maps and plans, as well as in scientific reports and works.

The research carried out in the middle of the 19th century had not only scientific, but also enormous geopolitical significance for Russia. G.I. Nevelsky and his followers intensive marine expeditionary research in Okhotsk and. Although the island position of Sakhalin was known to Russian cartographers from the very beginning of the 18th century, which was reflected in their works, the problem of accessibility of the Amur mouth for sea ​​vessels from the south and north was finally and positively resolved only by G.I. Nevelsky. This discovery decisively changed the attitude of the Russian authorities towards the Amur region and Primorye, showing the enormous potential capabilities of these rich regions, provided, as the research of G. I. Nevelsky proved, with end-to-end water communications leading to Pacific Ocean. These studies themselves were carried out by travelers, sometimes at their own peril and risk, in confrontation with official government circles. The remarkable expeditions of G.I. Nevelsky paved the way for the return of the Amur region to Russia under the terms of the Aigun Treaty with China (signed on May 28, 1858) and the annexation of Primorye to the Empire (under the terms of the Beijing Treaty between Russia and China, concluded on November 2 (14), 1860 .). The results of geographical research in the Amur and Primorye, as well as changes in borders in the Far East in accordance with the treaties between Russia and China, were cartographically declared on maps of the Amur and Primorye compiled and published as soon as possible.

Russian hydrographers in the 19th century. continued active work in the European seas. After the annexation of Crimea (1783) and the creation of the Russian navy in the Black Sea, detailed hydrographic surveys of the Azov and Black Seas began. Already in 1799, a navigational atlas was compiled by I.N. Billings to the northern coast, in 1807 - I.M. Budishchev’s atlas to the western part of the Black Sea, and in 1817 - “General map of the Black and Azov Seas”. In 1825-1836 under the leadership of E.P. Manganari, based on triangulation, a topographic survey of the entire northern and western sea was carried out, which made it possible to publish the “Atlas of the Black Sea” in 1841.

In the 19th century Intensified study of the Caspian Sea continued. In 1826, based on the materials of detailed hydrographic work of 1809-1817, carried out by the expedition of the Admiralty Boards under the leadership of A.E. Kolodkin, the “Complete Atlas of the Caspian Sea” was published, which fully met the requirements of shipping of that time.

In subsequent years, the atlas maps were refined by the expeditions of G. G. Basargin (1823-1825) on the west coast, N. N. Muravyov-Karsky (1819-1821), G. S. Karelin (1832, 1834, 1836) and others - on the eastern shore of the Caspian Sea. In 1847, I.I. Zherebtsov described the bay. In 1856, a new hydrographic expedition was sent to the Caspian Sea under the leadership of N.A. Ivashintsova, who carried out systematic surveying and description for 15 years, drawing up several plans and 26 maps that covered almost the entire coast of the Caspian Sea.

In the 19th century Intensive work continued to improve maps of the Baltic and White Seas. An outstanding achievement of Russian hydrography was the “Atlas of the Whole Baltic Sea...” compiled by G. A. Sarychev (1812). In 1834-1854. Based on the materials of the chronometric expedition of F. F. Schubert, maps were compiled and published for the entire Russian coast of the Baltic Sea.

Significant changes to the maps of the White Sea and the northern coast of the Kola Peninsula were made by the hydrographic works of F. P. Litke (1821-1824) and M. F. Reinecke (1826-1833). Based on the materials of the work of the Reinecke expedition, the “Atlas of the White Sea...” was published in 1833, the maps of which were used by sailors until the beginning of the 20th century, and the “Hydrographic Description of the Northern Coast of Russia,” which supplemented this atlas, can be considered as an example of a geographical description of the coasts. The Imperial Academy of Sciences awarded this work to M. F. Reinecke in 1851 with the full Demidov Prize.

Thematic mapping

Active development of basic (topographic and hydrographic) cartography in the 19th century. created the basis necessary for the development of special (thematic) mapping. Its intensive development dates back to the 19th and early 20th centuries.

In 1832, the Main Directorate of Communications published the Hydrographic Atlas of the Russian Empire. It included general maps at scales of 20 and 10 versts per inch, detailed maps at a scale of 2 versts per inch and plans at a scale of 100 fathoms per inch and larger. Hundreds of plans and maps were compiled, which contributed to increasing the cartographic knowledge of the territories along the routes of the corresponding roads.

Significant cartographic works in the 19th and early 20th centuries. carried out by the Ministry of State Property formed in 1837, in which in 1838 the Corps of Civil Topographers was established, which carried out mapping of poorly studied and unexplored lands.

An important achievement of Russian cartography was the “Marx Great World Desk Atlas” published in 1905 (2nd edition, 1909), which contained over 200 maps and an index of 130 thousand geographical names.

Mapping nature

Geological mapping

In the 19th century Intensive cartographic study of Russia's mineral resources and their exploitation continued, and special geognostic (geological) mapping was being developed. At the beginning of the 19th century. Many maps of mountain districts, plans of factories, salt and oil fields, gold mines, quarries, and mineral springs were created. The history of exploration and development of mineral resources in the Altai and Nerchinsk mountain districts is reflected in particular detail in the maps.

Numerous maps of mineral deposits, plans of land plots and forest holdings, factories, mines and mines were compiled. An example of a collection of valuable handwritten geological maps is the atlas “Map of Salt Mines”, compiled in the Mining Department. The collection's maps date mainly from the 20s and 30s. XIX century Many of the maps in this atlas are much broader in content than ordinary maps of salt mines, and are, in fact, early examples of geological (petrographic) maps. Thus, among the maps of G. Vansovich of 1825 there is a Petrographic map of the Bialystok region, Grodno and part of the Vilna province. The “Map of Pskov and part of the Novgorod province: with indications of rock-stone and salt springs discovered in 1824...” also has rich geological content.

An extremely rare example of an early map is the “Topographic Map of the Crimean Peninsula...” indicating the depth and quality of water in villages, compiled by A. N. Kozlovsky in 1842 on a cartographic basis of 1817. In addition, the map provides information about the areas of territories having different water supplies, as well as a table of the number of villages by county that need watering.

In 1840-1843. English geologist R. I. Murchison, together with A. A. Keyserling and N. I. Koksharov, conducted research that for the first time gave a scientific picture of the geological structure of European Russia.

In the 50s XIX century The first geological maps begin to be published in Russia. One of the earliest is “Geognostic map of the St. Petersburg province” (S. S. Kutorga, 1852). The results of intensive geological research were expressed in the “Geological Map of European Russia” (A.P. Karpinsky, 1893).

The main task of the Geological Committee was to create a 10-verst (1:420,000) geological map of European Russia, in connection with which a systematic study of the relief and geological structure of the territory began, in which such prominent geologists as I.V. Mushketov, A. P. Pavlov and others. By 1917, only 20 sheets of this map were published out of the planned 170. Since the 1870s. Geological mapping of some areas of Asian Russia began.

In 1895, the “Atlas of Terrestrial Magnetism” was published, compiled by A. A. Tillo.

Forest mapping

One of the earliest handwritten maps of forests is “Map for viewing the state of forests and the timber industry in [European] Russia,” compiled in 1840-1841, as established, by M. A. Tsvetkov. The Ministry of State Property carried out major work on mapping state forests, the forest industry and forest-consuming industries, as well as improving forest accounting and forest cartography. Materials for it were collected through requests through local departments of state property, as well as other departments. Two maps were drawn up in their final form in 1842; the first of them is a map of forests, the other was one of the early examples of soil-climatic maps, which indicated climatic bands and dominant soils in European Russia. A soil-climate map has not yet been discovered.

Work to compile a map of forests in European Russia revealed the unsatisfactory state of organization and mapping and prompted the Scientific Committee of the Ministry of State Property to create a special commission to improve forest mapping and forest accounting. As a result of the work of this commission, detailed instructions and symbols for drawing up forest plans and maps were created, approved by Tsar Nicholas I. The Ministry of State Property paid special attention to the organization of work on the study and mapping of state-owned lands in Siberia, which acquired a particularly wide scope after the abolition of serfdom in Russia in 1861, one of the consequences of which was the intensive development of the resettlement movement.

Soil mapping

In 1838, a systematic study of soils began in Russia. A large number of handwritten soil maps were compiled primarily from inquiries. A prominent economic geographer and climatologist, Academician K. S. Veselovsky, compiled and published the first consolidated “Soil Map of European Russia” in 1855, which shows eight soil types: chernozem, clay, sand, loam and sandy loam, silt, solonetzes, tundra , swamps. The works of K. S. Veselovsky on climatology and soils of Russia were the starting point for the works on soil cartography of the famous Russian geographer and soil scientist V. V. Dokuchaev, who proposed a truly scientific classification for soils based on the genetic principle, and introduced their comprehensive study taking into account factors soil formation. His book “Cartography of Russian Soils,” published by the Department of Agriculture and Rural Industry in 1879 as an explanatory text for the “Soil Map of European Russia,” laid the foundations of modern soil science and soil cartography. Since 1882, V.V. Dokuchaev and his followers (N.M. Sibirtsev, K.D. Glinka, S.S. Neustruev, L.I. Prasolov, etc.) conducted soil, and in fact complex physiographic studies in more than 20 provinces. One of the results of these works were soil maps of the provinces (on a 10-verst scale) and more detailed maps of individual counties. Under the leadership of V.V. Dokuchaev, N.M. Sibirtsev, G.I. Tanfilyev and A.R. Ferkhmin compiled and published the “Soil Map of European Russia” at a scale of 1:2,520,000 in 1901.

Socio-economic mapping

Farm mapping

The development of capitalism in industry and agriculture necessitated a more in-depth study of the national economy. For this purpose, in the middle of the 19th century. overview economic maps and atlases begin to be published. The first economic maps of individual provinces (St. Petersburg, Moscow, Yaroslavl, etc.) are being created. The first economic map published in Russia was “Map of the industry of European Russia showing factories, factories and industries, administrative places for the manufacturing part, the main fairs, water and land communications, ports, lighthouses, customs houses, the main piers, quarantines, etc., 1842” .

A significant cartographic work is the “Economic-statistical atlas of European Russia from 16 maps,” compiled and published in 1851 by the Ministry of State Property, which went through four editions - 1851, 1852, 1857 and 1869. This was the first economic atlas in our country dedicated to agriculture. It included the first thematic maps (soil, climate, agricultural). The atlas and its text part make an attempt to summarize the main features and directions of development of agriculture in Russia in the 50s. XIX century

Of undoubted interest is the handwritten “Statistical Atlas” compiled by the Ministry of Internal Affairs under the leadership of N.A. Milyutin in 1850. The Atlas consists of 35 maps and cartograms reflecting a wide variety of socio-economic parameters. It was apparently compiled in parallel with the “Economic Statistical Atlas” of 1851 and provides a lot of new information in comparison with it.

A major achievement of domestic cartography was the publication in 1872 of the “Map of the most important sectors of productivity of European Russia” compiled by the Central Statistical Committee (about 1:2,500,000). The publication of this work was facilitated by the improvement in the organization of statistics in Russia, associated with the formation in 1863 of the Central Statistical Committee, headed by the famous Russian geographer, vice-chairman of the Imperial Russian Geographical Society P. P. Semenov-Tyan-Shansky. Materials collected over the eight years of the existence of the Central Statistical Committee, as well as various sources from other departments, made it possible to create a map that comprehensively and reliably characterizes the economy of post-reform Russia. The map was an excellent reference tool and valuable material for scientific research. Distinguished by the completeness of its content, expressiveness and originality of mapping methods, it is a remarkable monument to the history of Russian cartography and a historical source that has not lost its significance to the present day.

The first capital atlas of industry was “Statistical Atlas of the Main Sectors of the Factory Industry of European Russia” by D. A. Timiryazev (1869-1873). At the same time, maps of the mining industry (Ural, Nerchinsk district, etc.), maps of the location of the sugar industry, agriculture, etc., transport and economic maps of cargo flows along railways and waterways were published.

One of the best works of Russian socio-economic cartography of the early 20th century. is the “Commercial and Industrial Map of European Russia” by V.P. Semenov-Tyan-Shan scale 1:1 680 000 (1911). This map presented a synthesis of the economic characteristics of many centers and regions.

It is worth mentioning one more outstanding cartographic work created by the Department of Agriculture of the Main Directorate of Agriculture and Land Management before the First World War. This is an atlas album “Agricultural Industry in Russia” (1914), representing a collection of statistical maps of agriculture. This album is interesting as an experience of a kind of “cartographic propaganda” of the potential opportunities of agriculture in Russia to attract new capital investments from abroad.

Population mapping

P.I. Keppen organized the systematic collection of statistical data on the number and ethnographic characteristics of the population of Russia. The result of P. I. Keppen’s work was the “Ethnographic Map of European Russia” on a scale of 75 versts per inch (1:3,150,000), which went through three editions (1851, 1853 and 1855). In 1875, a new large ethnographic map of European Russia was published on a scale of 60 versts per inch (1:2,520,000), compiled by the famous Russian ethnographer, Lieutenant General A.F. Rittikh. At the Paris International Geographical Exhibition the map received a 1st class medal. Ethnographic maps of the Caucasus region on a scale of 1:1,080,000 (A.F. Rittich, 1875), Asian Russia (M.I. Venyukov), the Kingdom of Poland (1871), Transcaucasia (1895), etc. were published.

Among other thematic cartographic works, one should name the first map of European Russia compiled by N. A. Milyutin (1851), “General Map of the Entire Russian Empire with the Degree of Population” by A. Rakint on a scale of 1:21,000,000 (1866), which included Alaska.

Comprehensive research and mapping

In 1850-1853. The police department released atlases of St. Petersburg (compiled by N.I. Tsylov) and Moscow (compiled by A. Khotev).

In 1897, G.I. Tanfilyev, a student of V.V. Dokuchaev, published a zoning of European Russia, which was first called physiographic. Tanfilyev’s scheme clearly reflected zonality, and also outlined some significant intrazonal differences in natural conditions.

In 1899, the world's first National Atlas of Finland, which was part of the Russian Empire, but had the status of an autonomous Grand Duchy of Finland, was published. In 1910, the second edition of this atlas appeared.

The highest achievement of pre-revolutionary thematic cartography was the major “Atlas of Asian Russia”, published in 1914 by the Resettlement Administration, accompanied by an extensive and richly illustrated text in three volumes. The atlas reflects the economic situation and conditions for agricultural development of the territory for the needs of the Resettlement Administration. It is interesting to note that this publication for the first time included a detailed overview of the history of cartography in Asian Russia, written by a young naval officer, later a famous historian of cartography, L. S. Bagrov. The contents of the maps and the accompanying text of the atlas reflect the results of the great work of various organizations and individual Russian scientists. For the first time, the Atlas provides an extensive set of economic maps for Asian Russia. Its central section consists of maps on which, with backgrounds of different colors, the general picture of land ownership and land use is shown, which displays the results of ten years of activity of the Resettlement Administration in settling the resettled people.

There is a special map dedicated to the distribution of the population of Asian Russia by religion. Three maps are dedicated to cities, which show their population, budget growth and debt. Cartograms for agriculture show the share of different crops in field cultivation and the relative number of the main types of livestock. Mineral deposits are marked on a separate map. Special maps of the atlas are dedicated to communication routes, postal institutions and telegraph lines, which, of course, were of extreme importance for sparsely populated Asian Russia.

So, at the beginning of the First World War, Russia came with cartography that provided the needs of defense, national economy, science and education of the country, at a level that fully corresponded to its role as a great Eurasian power of its time. At the beginning of the First World War, the Russian Empire possessed vast territories, displayed, in particular, on the general map of the state published by the cartographic establishment of A. A. Ilyin in 1915.

Μικρὰ Ῥωσία , lat. Russia/Ruthenia minor, fr. la Petite Russie, German. Kleinrussland) is the historical name of a number of regions in Eastern Europe, mainly modern Ukraine.

The name appeared at the beginning of the 14th century as a Byzantine church-administrative definition of the Galicia-Volyn and Turov-Pinsk principalities. Since the 16th century, the name of all Russian lands as part of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth (later White Rus' was separated from them). Since the 17th century, Little Russia has been one of the official names of the Hetmanate. Later it was used to designate the Russian Empire and the Little Russian Governorate. The term was practically not used in Soviet historiography.

However, other sources indicate a different interpretation of the origin of the term “Little Rus'”. Thus, according to G. F. Miller, the term “Little Russia” arose during the time when this territory was part of Poland: “In the discussions of the Grand Duchy of Moscow, which was under the control of the Grand Duke Ivan Vasilyevich I, who lived with the aforementioned King of Poland, Casimir, at one time, it began to spread more than before, the Kiev region could be called Little Russia, by which name the Poles called it, and from the Poles this name was adopted and put into use in Great Russia, and so it began to be Great, Little, White and Black Russia, of which three were captured by the Poles and Lithuania in those unfortunate times, when the Russian State was under the Tatar yoke.” (Historical works about Little Russia and Little Russians by G. F. Miller, Moscow, University Printing House, 1840)

Galicia-Volyn Principality

The term “Little Russia” was first used at the beginning of the 14th century in Byzantium to define modern Western Ukrainian lands in church administrative practice. Galician metropolis, created in 1303, covered six dioceses: Galician, Przemysl, Vladimir-Volyn, Kholmsk, Lutsk and Turov (that is, also part of the territory of modern Belarus), which in Byzantine sources were called Little Rus' (Greek. Μικρά Ῥωσία - Mikrá Rhōsía) in contrast to Great Rus' ( Μεγάλη Ῥωσία - Megálē Rhōsía), which since 1354 has meant the territory of 19 dioceses under the authority of the Kiev Metropolitan, whose residence (“seat”) was located in 1300-1325 in Vladimir-on-Klyazma, and in the period from 1325 to 1461 in Moscow.

However, on geographical maps of the 18th century, published by the Russian Academy of Sciences in 1736-1738, and in the Russian Atlas of 1745, the name Little Russia does not appear.

Little Russian identity

The Little Russian national idea fit well into the general imperial and Soviet cultural and ethnic concept.

Little Russia as a historical region of the Russian Empire

After the liquidation of the Hetmanate in 1764, the Little Russian Governorate was created from part of the Left Bank Ukraine with its administrative center in the city of Glukhov. In 1775, the Little Russian and Kiev provinces were united, and the provincial center was moved to Kyiv. In 1781, the Little Russian Governorate was divided into three governorates (provinces) - Chernigov, Novgorod-Seversky and Kiev. In 1796, the Little Russian province was recreated, Chernigov was appointed the provincial center, after which in 1802 it was again divided into two provinces: Poltava and Chernigov. In 1802, the Little Russian Government General was established as part of these provinces. In 1835, the Kharkov province was annexed to it. The residence of the Governor-General until 1837 was Poltava, and from 1837 - Kharkov. Abolished in 1856.

Titles Little Russia, Little Russian, Little Russians were used in relation to the entire southwestern region throughout the 19th and early 20th centuries.

Name Little Russia until 1917, it was semi-officially used to collectively designate the Volyn, Kyiv, Podolsk, Kharkov, Poltava and Chernigov provinces. That’s exactly how Grigory Skovoroda called Left-Bank Ukraine, mother and “Little Russia,” and Slobodskaya Ukraine his own aunt, which indicated the absence of a derogatory connotation in the term “Little Russia.”

The cultural and historical specificity of Little Russia, as well as the regional patriotism of the Little Russians, were quite acceptable in the eyes of supporters of the concept of a large Russian nation as long as they did not conflict with this concept. Moreover, in the first half of the 19th century, Little Russian specificity aroused keen interest in St. Petersburg and Moscow as a more colorful, romantic version of Russianness.

- Russia. History: Little Russia// Encyclopedic Dictionary of F. A. Brockhaus and I. A. Efron. - S.-Pb.: Brockhaus-Efron. 1890-1907.

Throughout the entire period of the entry of the territory of modern Ukraine into the Russian Empire, the term Little Russia in the broad sense was used as a synonym for Ukraine, both in everyday life and at the official levels. In this case, the term Little Russia could extend both to the lands of the middle Dnieper region and Sloboda Ukraine. In the narrow sense, the term Little Russia continued to be used in relation to the lands of the Left Bank Hetmanate.

Moreover, already in the second half of the 19th century the name Ukraine becomes more widely used in everyday life, private and public life and almost completely replaces all other designations (including the term “Little Russia”).

Ukraine after 1917

After 1917, the historical names “Little Russia”, “Little Russia” and words derived from it were practically removed from historiographical use in the Ukrainian SSR, RSFSR and USSR and had an almost negative connotation. During the All-Union Census of 1926, census takers were instructed not to record respondents as Little Russians under any circumstances.

In Ukrainian historical literature of the Ukrainian SSR period, the term “Little Russia” was also used quite rarely. [ ]

Term Little Russia Nowadays

In both Soviet and independent Ukraine, the term “Little Russia” is rarely used in historiography. Historical names of regions of Ukraine (Poltava region, Chernihiv region, etc.) are usually used as historical designations. It is allowed, however, to use the term “Little Russia” as a reference to past administrative-territorial units, for example in articles and monographs about the Little Russian Governorate, the Little Russian Government General, etc.

see also

Notes

1. Little Russia - Etymological Dictionary of the Russian Language by Max Vasmer
2. Big Encyclopedic Dictionary. Little Rus'
3. Little Russia- article from the Great Soviet Encyclopedia.
4. Florya B.N. On some features of the development of ethnic self-awareness of the Eastern Slavs in the Middle Ages - Early Modern times // Russia-Ukraine: history of relationships / Responsible. ed. A. I. Miller, V. F. Reprintsev, M., 1997. P. 9-27
5. Little Russia (Russian). TSB, 3rd edition. Retrieved September 20, 2019.
6. A. V. Kartashev Essays on the history of the Russian Church. Volume 1 (undefined) (unavailable link). Retrieved May 4, 2011. Archived December 22, 2011.
7. Ukraine. Chronology of development. - volume 3. - K., KRION, 2009, ISBN 978-966-16-5818-8, p.98-99
8. Rusina O. V. Ukraine under the Tatars and Lithuania. - Kiev: Vidavnichy house “Alternatives”, 1998. - P. 274. (Ukrainian)
9. Grushevsky M. S. History of Ukraine-Rus - K.: “Naukova Dumka”, 1994. - T. I. - P. 1−2. (Ukrainian)
10. Trubachev O. N. In search of unity. − 3rd ed., add. - M.: “Science”, 2005. - P. 86.
11. Quoted from: Rusina O. V. Ukraine under the Tatars and Lithuania. - Kiev: Vidavnichy house “Alternatives”, 1998. - p.276.
12. Part III, section II, article 1. ZACHARIYA KOPISTENSKY. CHRESTOMATHY OF OLD UKRAINIAN LITERATURE (undefined) . izbornyk.org.ua. Retrieved April 9, 2019.