Channel Tunnel. English Channel: the longest underwater tunnel in the world, which turned out to be unprofitable Tunnel between England and France distance

They drilled through the last obstacle and met in the Channel Tunnel, Frenchman Philip Cosette and Briton Graham Fage. They shook hands and drank champagne over the world's longest underwater tunnel - just over 50 kilometers, 38 of which are laid under the seabed, an average of 45 meters below its level. Years go by. Over time, the tunnel turned from a “miracle of technology” into an unprofitable enterprise, but to this day the technical solutions used in it are considered very successful and progressive.

...The last obstacle was finally overcome, the two ends of the grandiose tunnel connected with each other, and a meeting took place under the English Channel. Representatives of two different nations, a Frenchman and an Englishman, Philip Cosette and Graham Fagh were able to shake hands and solemnly drink a glass of champagne, celebrating the successful completion of construction the longest tunnel in the world today. The total length of the tunnel connecting England and France exceeds fifty kilometers, and 38 of them are directly under the bottom of the strait, this is its most difficult part, it goes underground to a depth of 45 meters.

Quite a few years have passed Channel Tunnel has long been no longer considered a miracle of technology; not only has it ceased to make a profit, even its maintenance is considered very unprofitable. Although the technical and engineering solutions used during its construction are still considered one of the most progressive in the world. The Euro Tunnel connects island Great Britain with the rest of continental Europe, built at the end of the twentieth century, inaugurated on May 6, 1994, the Channel Tunnel is still considered one of the symbols of a united Europe and the globalization of the modern world. Thanks to the American Society of Engineers, the tunnel received the status one of the seven wonders of modern reality.

And almost no one remembers the long development of the idea itself, which first excited the minds of European engineers back at the end of the 18th century. Already in 1802, the idea of ​​connecting the lands of the two states with a single tunnel was expressed by one of the most daring engineers in France, Albert Mathieu-Favier. He also drew up his own project, and the tunnel itself, according to the innovator’s plan, was to be illuminated by the oil lamps used at that time. Albert Mathieu-Favier imagined how it would be possible to travel through the wide tunnel from France to England on carriages drawn by horses, which in the underground space can easily miss each other. And it was planned to ventilate the dungeon using special vents, which were supposed to take air from the sea surface.

Emperor Napoleon Bonaparte liked this idea; during the signing of a peace treaty between previously warring states - France and England, he proposed this project to the English government. But the cost of its implementation at that time was simply enormous - it exceeded the million pounds sterling mark. The war and rising costs did not allow the grandiose plan to be realized. In 1856, the idea of ​​​​creating a tunnel was raised again, by another French engineer, Thomas de Gamond, but this time the British government, although it did not reject the idea itself, did not support it either.

The English engineer Peter William Barlow, who successfully developed the project for the London Underground - the first subway in the world, in 1875 proposed his own technical solution for laying a tunnel under the English Channel. He considered it possible to lay a steel pipe along the seabed, inside which transport could move, but this idea was immediately rejected, although the parliaments of England and France actively supported the grandiose construction. In 1876, after carrying out all the necessary geological and exploration work, the French, filled with enthusiasm, were the first to begin digging a tunnel under the strait, taking the French city of Sangatte as its starting point. The British also began building a tunnel for their part, choosing the narrowest place in the English Channel - near the city of Dover, using new drilling rigs designed by Colonel Boumont.

Kilometers had already been dug on both the English and French sides, but in 1883 the British government decided to curtail the ambitious project due to fears that the island would become vulnerable in the event of an attempted military invasion. The next attempt to build a tunnel was made in 1922, but then the workers advanced only 128 meters in drilling, and significant political reasons contributed to the curtailment of the entire project.

After the end of the Second World War and the changing political map of Europe, the idea of ​​​​building a tunnel became an important moment for the unification of the two states of Western Europe. After a long discussion of the work plan, careful drawing up of the project, drilling began only in 1987, and more than 13 thousand builders - both workers and engineers - took part in its construction. Finally, after seven long years, On May 6, 1994, the grand opening of the tunnel took place., which was attended by the heads of two states - Francois Mitterrand - the President of France and Elizabeth II - the British Queen. As a result, for the first time, 8,500 years after the melting of the glacier, the waters of which turned into the English Channel, it was possible to reach the rest of the European continent from the island by land.

The Eurotunnel consists of three different components, one part of the tunnel is intended for the movement of railway trains from north to south, the other in the opposite direction, and the third is used for maintenance. It is connected to two main parts every 375 meters, so that repairs to a specific area can be carried out at any time, or passengers can be evacuated in case of danger of an accident. Ventilation vents - every 250 meters, since during the movement of trains a “bullet effect” can be created, and the air escaping into the middle part of the tunnel prevents any negative consequences.

The safety of the Channel Tunnel has been tested twice, in real catastrophic situations. So, November 18, 1996 was remembered by passengers for the fire. A shuttle train carrying trucks caught fire. French rescuers then managed to evacuate the drivers of 34 trucks, helping them get out of the burning train and move to the service part of the tunnel, 8 people were seriously injured, they were taken to hospitals by ambulances that arrived on time, and the rest of the people were successfully taken out by another train, traveling in the opposite direction. But the fire was extinguished only several hours later; firefighters were faced with extremely high temperatures, drafts in the ventilation system and low water pressure in the tunnel fire system.

The fire caused serious damage to more than 400 meters of the tunnel; in a two-hundred-meter section, thick concrete walls were badly burned; the locomotive and many carriages were completely burned, but human casualties were avoided in this case. This was facilitated by the coordinated work of British and French rescuers, and the special design of the underground mine itself, where the possibility of emergency situations was thought out to the smallest detail. While the fire damage was repaired, the tunnel carried only one-way rail freight traffic, and on January 7, 1997, repairs were completed and traffic through the tunnel was resumed to both England and France for both freight and passenger trains.

The second emergency situation in the history of the Eurotunnel occurred on October 10, 2001. On this day, one of the trains traveling along it simply stopped, which led to panic among passengers. Many of them were subject to claustrophobia - fear of closed spaces, and only after five hours all passengers were taken to a special service tunnel and evacuated from there.

Trains running inside the tunnel reach a maximum speed of 350 km/h, so the rails of the railway track can heat up to high temperatures, sometimes reaching hundreds of degrees. A special cooling system is used; for this purpose, two stations were developed on different sides of the line with refrigerators that circulate liquid to cool the heating rails.

High-speed trains running along the Eurotunnel allow passengers to get from one capital to another as quickly as possible - in just 2.5 hours. The passage time through the tunnel itself by high-speed Eurostar trains is only 20 minutes, and by Shuttle trains it takes 35 minutes. There are four types of trains running through the Channel Tunnel:
. Eurostar is a high-speed passenger train connecting London, Ashford, Waterloo, Brussels, Lille and Calais.
. "Eurotunnel Shuttle" - high-speed shuttle trains for transporting passengers and vehicles, connecting the cities of Folkestone and Sangatte; while traveling, passengers do not leave their cars, and loading of vehicles is carried out in just 8 minutes.
. “Eurotunnel Shuttle” are freight railway trains with open platforms, on which only freight vehicles are transported, and their drivers are in a separate carriage during movement.
. Regular freight trains transporting containers and other types of cargo between insular Great Britain, mainland France and other European countries.

The speed of Eurostar class trains through the tunnel reaches 160 km/h, and on the rest of the route - up to 300 km/h. The Channel Tunnel Rail Link was not built right away, first a track was laid between the Eurotunnel and the city of Ebbsfleet, trains began running between them starting in 2003, then part of the route from Ebbsfleet to St. Pancras, which was laid in 2007 year, and then to the city of Waterloo, trains move on regular rails at a relatively low speed. Every year, millions of passengers, cars and vans, as well as tens of thousands of regular buses, pass through the Channel Tunnel.

For illegal migrants, the Eurotunnel is a kind of “pass” to the territory of Great Britain, attracting them with its soft social policy towards foreign citizens. In the French city of Sangatte there is a special center where migrants from all over the country flock who want to go to the UK, but not all illegal immigrants wait for a legal decision from the British authorities to enter the country, using the following methods of crossing the border under the English Channel. Previously, they climbed inside Eurostar passenger trains and immediately after crossing the border, remaining unnoticed by border and customs officials, got off in England at the first station, immediately after the train left the tunnel on the surface, but now the new passport and visa regime has deprived illegal immigrants of this possibilities.

The second way to cross the border is to hide well inside one of the shipping containers, but many migrants die during this dangerous journey. Thus, one day, when opening a container at the destination, more than fifty suffocated illegal migrants from Asia were discovered. Many migrants try to pass through the Eurotunnel on foot, but only a few manage to reach the territory of England - the rest either do not find the way and return back, or they are stopped by border guards and tunnel guards and returned to French territory.

Journalists from the program “New Wonders of the World” once told the world an interesting legend about one of the first illegal migrants who managed to cross the English Channel. The man, who had walked more than fifty kilometers, at the exit of the tunnel, having already fallen into the hands of British customs officers, still managed to escape, while very loudly shaking the air with Russian obscene language, which indicates that this is a citizen of one of the post-Soviet republics . He managed, by using force, to escape from the not-too-strong hands of the customs officers and quickly escape, but no one managed to find out his whereabouts or even his name.

To stop the flow of illegal immigrants, the British government in 2002 decided to install listening equipment and technology in Kent that scans containers to identify the presence of migrants in them, and a year later this problem also affected France. As a result, the entrance to the tunnel was closed with a fence, and the immigration center was liquidated.

The idea of ​​connecting Great Britain with the continental part of Europe with the help of a single engineering structure has visited the best minds on both sides of the strait for several centuries. Calculations were even made to determine which was preferable: a bridge or a tunnel. Napoleon Bonaparte intended to begin construction, but some historical circumstances prevented this. The actual Channel Tunnel was only put into operation at the end of the twentieth century. Not counting preliminary preparations, the actual construction work took about seven years.

Channel Tunnel. Characteristic

There were many construction projects. The one that was ultimately chosen turned out to be optimal both technically and economically. The length of the Channel tunnel is 51 kilometers, of which 39 are located directly under the strait itself. A railway tunnel operating in both directions simultaneously. Ensures the passage of both freight and passenger trains. A significant part of the cargo turnover is made up of passenger car traffic on open platforms. The Channel Tunnel allows you to get from London to Paris or back in just over two hours. It takes from twenty minutes to half an hour to overcome the tunnel itself.

Driving is carried out in accordance with English rules: on the left. the entire distance of the journey allows the train to develop a sufficiently high speed. The most surprising thing is that the grandiose Channel Tunnel is not at all the largest in the world. It is inferior to the Japanese Seikan and the Swiss

Some technical details

In fact, the Eurotunnel, as it is often called, consists of three parallel underground structures. Two of them carry traffic in opposite directions. And between them there is a third one, of smaller diameter. Every 375 meters it has exits to the main highways. The middle tunnel performs the functions of technical support and repair. It also allows you to establish stable ventilation throughout the entire underground space and avoid the so-called piston effect - high air pressure in front of a moving locomotive. In addition, it is designed to ensure the safety of all transport communications. In the event of an emergency, passengers must be evacuated along it. occurred several times over the two decades of operation of the tunnel, but the system managed to prove its reliability during its operation.

Eurotunnel - (French tunnel sous la Manche, English Channel Tunnel or simply EuroTunnel) is a railway tunnel, about 51 km long, of which 39 km pass under the English Channel. The structure, opened on May 6, 1994, was declared one of the Seven Modern Wonders of the World by the American Society of Civil Engineers.

The Channel Tunnel links Folkestone, Kent in England with Coquelles near Calais in northern France under the English Channel in the Strait of Dover. The lowest point is 75 m. The English Channel Tunnel has the longest section laid under the sea in the world. In general, the largest is the Seikan Tunnel in Japan, its length is 53.85 kilometers and its depth is 240 meters. The tunnel is traversed by Eurostar high-speed passenger trains, as well as ro-ro trains, the world's largest international freight trains.

The idea of ​​​​creating a tunnel appeared back in 1802, but the first real project was proposed a century and a half later; construction began in 1988, and it was opened only in 1994. The total cost exceeded expectations by 80%, in addition, concessionaires from Eurotunnel (Eurotunnel) overestimated the potential traffic and therefore faced financial difficulties. Fires interrupted the tunnel's operation several times. Illegal immigrants and adventurers used the tunnel to enter the UK, forming a queue outside the Sangatte refugee camp, which was forced to close in 2002.

Eleven drilling machines from France and Britain were digging through layers of clay to dig two railway tunnels and a service tunnel. Car terminals are located at Sheriton (part of Folkestone) and Cockels and have links to British and French motorways.

Proposals for the creation of communication routes across the English Channel date back to Albert Metier's 1802 plan, according to which crews would move along an artificial bridge under the canal. For 150 years, the British government blocked all initiatives of this kind. In 1974, the French and British governments began construction of a tunnel at both ends, but the project was stopped by the British government due to financial problems. In 1985, the French and British governments paved the way for a new attempt. Eurotunnel, a group consisting of 10 construction companies and 5 banks, received the right to build the tunnel, or rather, to continue the project in 1974. Work began in 1988 and was completed in 1994. At 1985 prices The whole project cost £4,650 million (£10,153 taking into account inflation for 2007), the financial plan was exceeded by 80%. At the height of construction, 15,000 people were involved in the work at a time, costing about £3 million per day. Ten workers, including eight Britons, were killed during construction between 1987 and 1993, most in the early months.

The tunnel is used by three services: Eurotunnel Shuttle (originally Le Shuttle), ro-ro ships, including cargo ones; Eurostar passenger trains; and freight trains.

Eurotunnel's traffic estimate turned out to be overestimated, so the group of companies experienced some financial difficulties. In 1996, 2006 and 2008 freight trains started several fires, closing the tunnel for periods of time, although no one was seriously injured in any of the incidents. Five years after the opening, the financial situation remained almost unchanged, and therefore it was difficult to make any changes to the design. In 1996, the American Society of Civil Engineers, with the participation of Popular Mechanics, named the tunnel one of the Seven Wonders of the Modern World.

Suggestions and attempts

In 1955, arguments about the need to protect the country seemed irrelevant due to the development of air transport. The British and French governments supported technical and geological research.

Construction work began on both banks of the canal in 1974; two tunnels were provided, one of them a service tunnel, where commuter cars could travel. In January 1975, to the disappointment of the French partners, the British government canceled the project. The fact is that the Labor Party came to power with doubts about entry into the EU, the growing cost of the project (up to 200%) and problems in the national economy. By that time, the British company TBM was ready to work, and the Ministry of Transport was ready to finance 300 experimental meters. However, representatives of the British side soon abandoned this short tunnel.

In 1979, the “Mouse-hole Project” was proposed for consideration by the Conservative Party, which came to power in Great Britain. His concept is the only railway tunnel with a service tunnel, but without terminals at the exits. The British government stated that it was not interested in this project, but Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher said that if this project was private, no questions would arise. In 1981, British and French leaders Margaret Thatcher and François Mitterrand agreed to create a working group as part of a private project and in April 1985 the process of reviewing the design of the future tunnel took place. The following were submitted for consideration:

• Railway plan based on the 1975 project Channel Tunnel Group/France-Manche, abbreviated CTG/F-M
• Eurobridge - a 4.5 km long bridge in the shape of a pipe
• Euroroute - a 21 km long tunnel between artificial islands, which, in turn, were planned to be reached by bridges
• Channel Expressway is a wide tunnel with ventilation towers in the middle of the channel.

The protesters united in a company called Flexilink. In 1975, no protest campaign was organized; the state owner was one of the largest railway companies, Sealink. Flexilink continued its opposition activities in 1986-1987. At the same time, public opinion unanimously supported the project, but safety issues, in particular various incidents, caused fear, which led to the reduction of the list of candidates for work on the project to a single company, CTG/F-M.

Organization

The Channel Tunnel Group includes two banks and five construction companies, while its French counterpart, France-Manche, has three banks and five construction companies. The role of banks is to provide financing advice and secure loans. On July 2, 1985, the groups merged as Channel Tunnel Group/France-Manche, CTG/F-M. Their design was based on the 1975 plans and also highlighted the environmental side of the project.

The construction and decoration were entirely carried out by ten construction companies of the CTG/F-M group. The French terminal and the section to Sungate were developed by five French construction companies united in the GIE Transmanche Construction group. The English Terminal and the section to Shakespeare's Cliff were developed by five English construction companies as part of the Trankslink Joint Venture. The two companions were linked by TransManche Link (TML), a French-English organization. The Maître d'Oeuvre is an engineering company hired by Eurotunnel to oversee the development of the project and report to governments and banks.

In France, with a long tradition of investing in infrastructure, the project received widespread approval and the French National Assembly funded the project in April 1987, followed by the Senate in June 1987. In the UK, select committees examined the proposal outside Westminster, in Kent. In February 1987, the Channel Tunnel project had its third reading and was approved by 94 votes to 22 against. The Channel Tunnel Act became British law in July. The BOOT Channel Tunnel project was accepted. TML will build and design the tunnel, but the financing was provided through a separately registered entity: Eurotunnel. CTG/F-M became part of the Eurotunnel and signed a contract with TML; however, the British and French governments monitored the progress of work and the level of safety of the process. The British and French governments gave Eurotunnel a 55 (later 65) year loan to pay off its debts and pay dividends. A Railway Usage Agreement was signed between the Eurotunnel, British Rail and the Société Nationale des Chemins de fer Français, guaranteeing future income in exchange for the railways taking up half of the tunnel .

Private investment has reached unprecedented levels. The initial sum of £45 million raised by CTG/F-M was increased by £206 from private proceeds, a further £770 million was added after the involvement of press and television, and the syndicate bank arranged a loan of £5 million. Overall, all private investment at 1985 prices amounted to £2,600 million. By 1994 costs in 1985 prices were £4,650, or 80% more. This was partly due to problems with increasing safety and environmental requirements. The final amount exceeded the planned amount by 140%.

Progress

The Eurotunnel completed the project on time and the tunnel was opened by Queen Elisabeth II and French President François Mitterrand in Calais on May 6, 1994. The Queen traveled through the tunnel to Calais on the Eurostar train, which was nose-to-nose with President Mitterrand's train from Paris. As part of the ceremony, President Mitterrand and the Queen traveled on Le Shuttle to a similar event in Folkestone. The Channel Tunnel Rail Link (CTRL), today called High Speed ​​1, extends 111 km from St Pancras railway station in London to the Channel Tunnel in Folkestone in Kent. Its cost is £5.8 million. On 16 September 2003, British Prime Minister Tony Blair opened the first section of Expressway 1, from Folkestone to north Kent. On 6 November 2007, the Queen officially opened Expressway 1 at St Pancras International Station, replacing the conventional rail line to Waterloo International Station. Express Line 1 trains travel at speeds of up to 300 km/h, traveling from London to Paris in 2 hours 15 minutes, and from London to Brussels in 1 hour 51 minutes.

Usage and flights

The number of passengers and cargo transported increases every year. The number of cargo flights fell in 1996-1997. due to a fire in November 1996 at the British terminal at Cheriton in west Folkestone. Terminal services are connected to the M20 motorway. The White Horse at Folkestone is the last thing passengers in England see when they board a train at Cheriton. Services offered by the tunnel:

• Eurotunnel Shuttle (originally Le Shuttle) - road for ro-ro cruisers
• Eurostar passenger trains
• Freight trains

Traffic on both cargo and passenger flights was initially overestimated, although Eurotunnel carefully calculated future fees. Although traffic in canal areas (close to sea and air) was predicted correctly, high competition and reduced traffic resulted in lower revenues. IN

Passenger traffic volume

Passenger traffic peaked at 18.4 million in 1998, then fell to 14.9 million in 2003 and rose again to 16.1 million in 2008. When it was decided to build the tunnel, it was estimated that 15.9 million passengers would use Eurostar trains in the first year after opening. In 1995 - its first full year - the number of passengers slightly exceeded 2.9 million, reaching 7.1 million by 2000 and falling again to 6.3 million in 2003. However, Eurostar was also limited by a lack of expressways In Great Britain. After the opening of Expressway 1 (originally CTRL) to London in two stages - in 2003 and 2007. — traffic has increased again. In 2008, Eurostar carried 9,113,371 passengers through the Channel Tunnel, 10% more than last year, despite the 2008 fire.

Freight traffic volume

Freight traffic volumes are volatile, falling sharply in 1997 due to a freight train fire. Since then, the volume has been growing, the tunnel has proven its competitiveness with the sea. Traffic volumes are now almost identical to Eurotunnel predictions in the 1980s, but calculations in 1990 and 1994 turned out to be overestimated. In the first year, freight train traffic was expected to be 7.2 million tons, but in 1995 this figure stood at 1.3 million tons. The maximum volume of transportation was recorded in 1998 - 3.1 million tons. However, due to unresolved issues, this figure returned to 1.21 million tons in 2007, adding slightly to 2008's 1.24 million tons. However, taking into account suburban cargo flights, a gradual and constant increase in traffic can be traced, from 6.4 million tons in 1995, to 18.4 million tons in 2003 and 19.6 million tons in 2007. Eurotunnel's subsidiary is Europorte 2. In September 2006, EWS, Britain's largest rail operator, announced it would end French-English government subsidies of £52 million to cover the Channel Tunnel's "Minimum User Charge" (subsidy of approximately £13,000 per train with 4,000 trains per year), freight trains will stop operating from November 30.

Economic situation

Eurotunnel shares were issued at £3.50 per share on 9 December 1987. By mid-1989 the price had risen to £11.00. Delays and exceeding the planned cost of the facility “dropped” the value of shares; During the demonstrations in October 1994, the share price reached its lowest level. Eurotunnel delayed payments in September 1995, fearing bankruptcy. In December 1997, the British and French governments extended the loan term by 34 years until 2086. Financial restructuring of Eurotunnel in mid-1998 reduced the debt and financial burden. However, despite the restructuring, The Economist stated in 1998 that Eurotunnel would have to increase prices, traffic and stock to survive the period. An analysis of the costs and benefits of the Channel Tunnel showed that the British economy fared better if the Tunnel had not been built. As part of the same Project, Eurotunnel was obliged to study the possibility of building an additional tunnel. In December 1999, designs for a conventional tunnel and a railway tunnel were submitted to the British and French governments, but it was decided that the design did not meet the requirements for a second tunnel. A tripartite agreement between Great Britain, France and Belgium defined the boundaries and zones where representatives of other countries could perform certain duties. For greater convenience, these powers are distributed at the ends of the tunnel, for example, a French post at the British exit from the tunnel and a British post at the French one. For some trains, the train itself is the control area. The French-English emergency plan coordinates the actions of British and French services.

Fires

There were three fires in the tunnel, due to which it had to be closed, all cases occurred on heavy freight trains.

1996

On November 18, 1996, a freight car caught fire, but no one was seriously injured. The exact cause is unknown, but the accident was not due to Eurotunnel equipment or problems with the rails; Arson may have been the cause. During the fire, temperatures were estimated to reach 1,000 °C (1,800 °F), and a 46-meter (151-foot) section of the tunnel was partially damaged, and a 500-meter (500-meter) section was also damaged to some extent. All flights resumed in full six months after the fire.

2006

The tunnel was closed for several hours on August 21, 2006, when the contents of one of the freight trains caught fire.

2008

On 11 September 2008, the Channel Tunnel fire started at 13:57 GMT. The incident occurred on a freight train heading to France 11 kilometers from the French exit from the tunnel. No one was killed, but several people were taken to the hospital suffering from strangulation and minor injuries. The tunnel was closed to all traffic; the undamaged South Tunnel reopened two days later. On February 9, 2009, renovations were estimated at €60 million.

Impact on regions

A 1996 European Commission report stated that Kent and north Calais could face a significant increase in traffic as a result of increased traffic in the Tunnel. In Kent, high speed rail is set to solve this problem. Regional development in Kent is accelerated by the tunnel's proximity, but limited by its proximity to London. It is mainly the traditional industry that benefits, and in general this benefit depends on the development of the international passenger station in Ashford, without which Kent would gradually find itself in the territory of a growing London. Nord-Pas-de-Calais enjoys the powerful effect caused by the proximity of the tunnel, thanks to which a great leap has been made in the manufacturing industry. Relieving congestion through projects such as the Channel Tunnel does not necessarily result in economic benefits for surrounding regions; the fact that these regions have high-speed transport and are actively involved in political activities is much more important for their development. The south-west of England likely benefits evolutionarily and socially from the proximity of fast and cheaper transport to mainland Europe, but this benefit is limited to some parts of the region. In general, the environmental impact of the tunnel is negative. Five years after the tunnel's opening, there has been little impact on the economy, making it difficult to associate major changes with the tunnel's arrival.

Homeless people and immigrants

Illegal immigrants and house seekers used the tunnel to enter Britain. By 1997, the problem had attracted the attention of the international press and the French Red Cross opened a center for immigrants in Santgate in 1999, using a warehouse that existed during the tunnel's construction; by 2002 it was holding up to 1,500 people at a time, most of them trying to enter the UK. On the one hand, most of them came from Afghanistan, Iraq and Iran, but Africa and Eastern Europe were also represented, albeit to a lesser extent. Most of those who arrived here traveled by freight train, and the rest by Eurostar trains. Although the tunnel was guarded and it was believed that it was impossible to penetrate there, emigrants even jumped from bridges onto moving trains. In several cases, people were injured during their journey through the tunnel; others were hidden among equipment, causing delays and sometimes even repairs. Eurotunnel said it was losing £5 million a month due to the problems. Dozens of emigrants died trying to get through the tunnel. In 2001 and 2002 During several demonstrations, groups of emigrants broke into Sagate (up to 550 in December 2001), they attacked the fences and tried to get through en masse. Immigrants also arrived as Eurostar passengers, but without identification documents. Local authorities in France and the UK called for Sungate to be closed, and Eurotunnel was ordered to do so twice. The UK accused France of not adequately policing Sungate, and France accused the UK of not having strict laws for immigrants. This caused other problems, including the detention of journalists. In 2002, after the European Commission failed to declare France that it was breaking EU rules by allowing free movement of goods, and citing delays and closures as a result of insufficient security, a double fence was built at a cost of £5 million, reducing the number of emigrants from 250 a week almost to zero. Other measures include CCTV cameras and increased police patrols. Sungate closed at the end of 2002 after the UK agreed to take in some emigrants.

Engineering

The service tunnel uses the Service Tunnel Transport System (STTS) and Light Service Tunnel Vehicles (LADOGS). Fire protection was a particular area of ​​criticism. Between the entrances at Beussingue and Castle Hill, the tunnel is 50.5 km (31 miles) long, of which 3.3 km underground on the French side, 9.3 km underground on the British side and 37 .9 km underwater. Thus, the English Channel Tunnel is the second railway tunnel in the world, after the Seikan Tunnel in Japan, but the longest underwater section is still at the English Channel. The average depth is 45 meters from the seabed. On the UK side, of the 5 million cubic meters (6.5*106 cubic yards) of excavated earth, 1 million cubic meters was used in the construction of the terminal, the remainder being hauled to Shakespeare's Crag behind the causeway, occupying 30 hectares of land. This land was subsequently used for Samphire Hoe Country Park. The environmental situation did not pose any risks to the project, and subsequent safety, noise and air pollution studies were generally positive. However, the environmental situation was affected by the high-speed line from the tunnel to London.

Research

Measurements of the depth of the strait by Thomas de Gamond in 1833-1867. showed that the maximum is 55 meters, and below there are geological layers. Research continued for many years with 166 offshore and 70 onshore drill holes and 4,000 km of seabed explored. Research was undertaken in 1958-1959, 1964-1965, 1972-1974. and 1986-1988 Research in 1958-1959 required the involvement of a metro and a bridge, as well as a dug area; this entire area was researched. At this time, marine geological research for engineering projects was just in its infancy, and there were no seismic instruments. Study 1964-1965 concentrated in the north on the English coast at Dover Bay, 70 boreholes were drilled into the rock-solid ground south of Dover Bay. After preliminary results and difficulties with access, the territory slightly to the south was explored in 1972-1973, where it was decided to build a tunnel. Other information also came from this research until it was closed in 1975. On the French side at Sungate a large shaft with several galleries was made. On the English side at Shakespeare's Cliff, the government has given permission to dig a 250-metre-diameter tunnel out of 4.5 metres. The modern tunnel was designed in exactly the same way as they tried to do in 1975. During the study in 1986-1997. it was found that 85% of all soil is chalk and limestone. For this purpose, geophysical techniques from the oil industry were used.

Geology

For the successful implementation of the canal tunnel project, a clear understanding of the geology and topography was necessary, as well as proven building materials for finishing the inside of the tunnel. Geological research is mainly in the chalk layer, partly on the spurs of the mountains in Weldon and Boulogne. The following characteristics were given:

• According to Vestegan's observations in 1698, the slopes on both are represented by Cretaceous rocks without significant changes
• The slopes consist of four geological strata, marine sedimentary rocks deposited 90-100 million years ago; the upper and middle chalk layers above the lower chalk layer and finally the waterproof alumina. A sand layer and glauconitic limestone were found between the chalk layer and the clay.
• The 25-30 meter chalk limestone layer (craie bleue in French) at the bottom of the chalk layer was considered the best place to build a tunnel. Chalk contains 30-40% clay, which makes it waterproof and at the same time easy for excavation and powerful without unnecessary support structures. Ideally, the tunnel would have been built 15 meters below the chalk limestone layer, allowing water to flow out of the openings and providing the fewest joints, but above the clay layer the pressure on the tunnel could increase, and high humidity and unpleasant odors were feared. On the English side of the canal the slope is about 5°, but on the French side it is 20°. Small offsets are present on both sides. On the English side the displacements are small, no more than a meter. But on the French side they reach up to 15 meters, to the anticlinal folds. These displacements are limited in width and filled with calcium, pyrite and clay. An increasing slope and some defects limited the choice of route on the French side. To avoid inclusions of other soils, we used special equipment to look for places with chalky limestone soil. On the French side, especially close to the coast, the chalk was harder and finer than on the English side. Therefore, different techniques were used on different banks.

The study did not identify any significant risks, but the Fosse Dangaered underwater valley and Castle Hill were expected to be affected. In 1964-1965 A geophysical survey of Fosse Dangered showed that the length of the valley is 80 meters and it is located 500 meters to the south, approximately in the middle of the channel. A 1986 study showed that underground rivers ran through the area where the tunnel was planned, so it was moved as far down and north as possible. The English Terminal would take place on Castle Hill, which comprises chalk beds, glauconic limestone and alluvial heavy clay. This area was fortified with buttresses and drainage galleries. The service tunnels were pilot projects before the main tunnels were laid in order to have advance knowledge of the geology, areas of eroded rock, and wet areas. Research samples were taken in service tunnels, including above, below and to the sides.

Tunnel

A typical service tunnel between two main railways. The connection between two railway tunnels shown in the diagram is represented by a piston needed to control the pressure changing due to the movement of trains. The tunnel between England and France was the largest project besides the Seikan Tunnel in Japan. The most serious risk facing any underwater tunnel is the proximity of water and its pressure on the tunnel surface. The English Channel Tunnel also had its own problem: since the investors in the project were mainly private companies and entrepreneurs, it was necessary to implement it as quickly as possible and pay off the lenders. The goal was to build: two railway tunnels with a diameter of 7.6 meters, 30 meters apart, 50 km long; a service tunnel with a diameter of 4.8 meters between the two main tunnels; pairs of perpendicular tunnels with a diameter of 3.3 meters connecting the railway tunnels with the service tunnel over a space of 375 meters; auxiliary 2-meter pistons connecting railway tunnels every 250 meters; two underwater caves connected to railway tunnels. The service tunnel was always built at least 1 km faster in order to become familiar with the composition of the soil; in the mining industry it was already necessary to build tunnels through chalk soils. Underwater intersecting caves have become a serious engineering problem. The French Cave was modeled after the Mount Baker Ridge Freeway Tunnel in the United States.

The British Cave was connected to the service tunnel before the main tunnel was built to avoid delays. Prefabricated segmental mounts were used in the TBM main engines, but differently on the French and English sides. On the French side, neoprene fastenings made of reinforced cast iron or reinforced concrete were used. On the English side, speed was preferred and segments were bolted together only where the geology required. The British tunnels used eight fastenings and a key segment, while the French side used five fastenings and a key segment. On the French side, a 55 meter shaft in Sungate with a diameter of 75 meters was used for the descent. On the English side, this site was located 140 meters below the top of Shakespeare's Cliff, where the New Austrian Tunneling Method (NATM) was first used. On the English side, underground tunnels were built from Shakespeare's Crag, as well as underwater ones, rather than from Folkestone. The platform at the base of the cliff was not large enough, so the excavated earth was placed behind a reinforced concrete dam, but on the condition that the chalk soils were transferred to a closed lagoon to avoid their dispersal. Due to limited space, the prefabricated factory was located on the Isle of Grain in the Thames Estuary. On the French side, due to insufficient soil impermeability, TBMs were used, putting pressure on the post.

The TBMs were hidden for the first 5 kilometers of the route, then they were exposed and rested on the chalky limestone soil. This minimized the pressure on the base of the tunnel and ensured maximum safety from flooding. Such actions on the French side required the involvement of five TBMs: two main sea vehicles, one main land vehicle (the engines allowed the vehicle to move 3 km in one direction, then change it and continue moving in the other direction using a different engine) and two vehicles in the service tunnel.

It seems that the French and English have a penchant for long-term joint projects. There are more than enough examples in history: the Hundred Years' War, which they entered in 1337, lasted for 116 years, the project to create the supersonic Concorde aircraft took two decades. And one of the most ambitious construction projects of the 20th century - the Channel Tunnel - began back in 1881. Then the matter did not move beyond the station facilities, but now many people do not understand how they even managed to get to the British Isles when there was no tunnel.

The British have always been and continue to be proud of their isolation from the rest of Europe. They did not switch to the euro and did not join the European Union. The English approach to integration is perfectly characterized by a story dating back to 1858. That year, the question of building a tunnel across the English Channel was first raised in the English Parliament. Hearing this, Lord Palmerston, at that time the Prime Minister of Great Britain, was indignant: “What? Do you dare ask for money for a cause whose purpose is to shorten a distance that we consider already too short?” Against this background, it seems surprising how the inhabitants of Albion decided to build a tunnel to continental Europe. However, no less striking is the tenacity with which French and English engineers proposed projects for a land connection between the two states: in the period from 1883 to 1941 alone, more than 300 (!) different projects for bridges and tunnels were presented.

Underground Cavalry

The idea of ​​establishing a land connection between the continent and the British Isles was born in the middle of the 18th century, when the University of Amiens announced a competition for the best project to connect the two states. The first real tunnel project dates back to 1802. It was developed by Albert Mathieu. The Frenchman proposed to build a tunnel at a depth of about 10 meters from the bottom of the strait for the movement of horse-drawn carriages, illuminate it with oil lamps, and use special shafts for ventilation, which were supposed to rise five meters above the surface of the water. It is known that Napoleon was familiar with Mathieu's project. Did it interest him? History stores exactly the opposite information. According to one version, the tunnel seemed like a crazy idea to Napoleon. According to another, he personally proposed to the British to connect their countries with an underground road.

International metro

With the rapid development of the railway network in England, the horse-drawn versions of the tunnel were replaced by rail ones. The main promoter of such projects was the French mining engineer Thomas de Gamon in the 19th century. It is known that the Frenchman was so fanatical about connecting the continent with the island that he spent more than 30 years carefully studying seven alternative projects. Among them was such an extravagant connection option as a giant bridge resting on bulk islands. In 1860, the new project for the de Gamon tunnel was approved by Napoleon III and Queen Victoria, but the Frenchman’s dream did not come true - construction did not come to fruition.

In the 1870s, relations between the French and the British warmed sharply. After the defeat in the Franco-Prussian War, the French invited the British to unite to counter a new strong enemy - the German Kaiser. Neighbors began to re-develop the tunnel project.

Victorian engineers achieved great success in tunneling. In 1843, they were the first in the world to construct a tunnel under the Thames with a tunnel shield, and then gained enormous experience in this area during the construction of the world's first London Underground. Therefore, technically, building a tunnel under the English Channel did not pose a big problem. In 1881, two tunneling shields of the company were launched towards each other. Beaumont & English" - the most powerful and technically advanced at that time. In the first year, approximately 2 km of track was dug on both sides: it was expected that the underground meeting of workers would take place in five years. However, in 1883, construction of the Channel Tunnel was stopped. English politicians and journalists increasingly made statements that the tunnel would be a wonderful gift for their potential enemy - in the event of a conflict, the French could easily attack Britain through the tunnel. Until the Second World War, all projects for tunnels or bridges across the English Channel met with severe resistance from the British government. Attitudes towards the project changed only in the mid-1950s.

The tunnel is not so scary...

When the Second World War ended, it became clear that with the advent of new modes of transport and weapons, the tunnel no longer posed a real threat to British defense. This was publicly announced by the UK Ministry of Defense in 1955. Meanwhile, commodity exchange between the island and the continent increased steadily. Therefore, in the summer of 1957, an Anglo-French research group was formed to find out whether it was necessary to connect the two states and, if so, how. By the early 1960s, two alternatives were competing - the tunnel project and the bridge project. According to the first project, it was planned to build a complex railway tunnel under the bottom of the strait, consisting of two working hoses and a service one between them. This project was in competition with the giant bridge project, which was warmly supported by the heads of metallurgical concerns. In the end, the underground project won, but the approval process was delayed. After construction of the tunnel began in 1974, financing problems arose. A year later the project was suspended.

The topic of the tunnel was returned to again only in 1984, when the governments of the two countries announced an open tender for a project that would connect the UK with France. In the fall of 1985, four independent development groups proposed their options.

The most extravagant project was Europont— a 52-kilometer bridge with spans suspended on Kevlar threads. The project was quickly rejected as too expensive and based on as yet untested technology. Another project - Euroroute— proposed a complex system of bridges and tunnels with support points on specially built artificial islands.

Project Channel Expressway It was a two-level tunnel with rail and road connections. Both of these projects were preferred Eurotunnel- the cheapest and easiest to build alternative, which was based on the tunnel concept of the 1970s. According to preliminary calculations of the developers, the implementation of the project Eurotunnel was valued at £5 billion.

However, this amount also seemed too high for the governments of both European countries: in January 1986, Margaret Thatcher and Francois Mitterrand jointly announced that they considered the project too expensive to spend taxpayers' money on.

Rails vs freeway

Project Channel Expressway lost to the project Eurotunnel not only because of the higher cost. It was decided that driving a car through a 50-kilometer tunnel would require a lot of physical and mental stress from drivers, which could lead to stressful situations and accidents. In addition, a more effective solution required the issue of cleaning the tunnel from exhaust gases. The most preferable option is the transportation of cars on electric train platforms.

But such a statement did not mean that the project was postponed again. A way out of the situation was found. We decided to organize an open joint stock company " Eurotunnel", the initial capital of which was to be provided by construction companies with the support of private banks (without state support). The newly formed company had to independently find money for the construction of the tunnel, including through the sale of its shares. As a token of gratitude, she received the right to manage the structure for 55 years. At the end of this period, the tunnel in working order should be handed over to the governments of France and Great Britain.

New story

The further fate of the Channel Tunnel is well known. On December 15, 1987, the first tunneling shield went into operation - it was digging a service tunnel with a diameter of 4.8 m. Then more powerful tunneling machines joined in, digging two main tunnels with a diameter of 7.6 m each. In total, deep in the tunnel, 11 shields worked simultaneously almost without interruption. Three French and three English shields moved towards each other under the bottom of the English Channel. Three more were digging a tunnel deep into the island towards the British terminal, and two were drilling three tunnels towards the French terminal. A 39 km tunnel was dug directly at the bottom of the sea, and its total length was 51 km.

A laser positioning system was used to ensure that both ends met at the same location. Thanks to her, workers from England and France met at the intended point on December 1, 1990, at a depth of 40 m from the bottom of the strait. The error was only 358 mm horizontally and 58 mm vertically. By the way, English and French drillers did the last meters of the tunnel manually - using picks and shovels.

The Eurotunnel was inaugurated by Queen Elizabeth II and François Mitterrand on May 6, 1994. One of humanity's longest projects was completed in just seven years. 13 thousand workers and engineers took part in its creation, and about 10 billion pounds sterling was spent on construction (taking into account inflation, almost twice as much as originally expected). The dream of Tomé de Gamon and hundreds of other project supporters has finally come true!

The grandiose project of the twentieth century has not yet justified itself financially: only in April 2008 the company “ Eurotunnel» announced annual profits for the first time since its inception. A child that has been gestated for a long time, it seems, also has a long payoff...

Illustrations for the article provided by the company Eurotunnel.

English Channel Bridge

This is what the magazine “Science and Life” wrote about the next project of a bridge across the English Channel in No. 1 for 1890.

Without exaggeration, this century can be called the century of gigantic structures, one of which was the Eiffel Tower at the Paris Exhibition. Now a new, even more grandiose and important structure is being prepared - a bridge across the English Channel, dividing France from England. This bridge will be 28 kilometers long (almost the same number of miles).

The question of connecting England with France by bridge or tunnel has arisen for a long time. In 1873, the issue of a Channel Tunnel was seriously raised. All necessary studies have been carried out; the feasibility of the enterprise was fully proven; its benefit for both countries was undoubted; There were also capitalists who provided money for the implementation of the enterprise. The underwater tunnel project, however, failed due to political considerations. Since the ground forces of England are insignificant, there was a fear that troops could be landed through the tunnel to England. Now a project has arisen to connect England with France not under water, but over water through a bridge of unheard-of size.

In England, a company was formed with huge capital " Channel Bridge" Two famous English engineers took on the technical side of the matter: John Fowler ( Fowler) and Benjamin Becker ( Baker) and two famous French ones: Mr. Schneider and Mr. Gersan ( Hersent), managing one of the largest mechanical factories in the world in Creusot. These four engineers carried out all the necessary research and have already developed a detailed design for a bridge across the English Channel.

The bridge is supposed to be built at the narrowest point of the strait, between Gris-Nez(from France) and Foxton (from England). The distance between these two points in a straight line is less than 28 kilometers; but the bridge will make a slight curve to take advantage of two existing shallows (Varnska and Kolbarska banks). On these shallows the sea depth is only 6-7 meters, which will significantly reduce the cost of building abutment towers. The greatest depth of the sea in this direction is 55 meters (27 fathoms) at low tide.

Thus, it is necessary: ​​1) to build abutments (hereinafter we will call them towers due to their extraordinary size) at great depths; 2) raise the bridge itself so that the largest sea vessels can pass under it. According to the preliminary draft ( Arant-Projet), builders think of achieving it this way.

The towers (abutments) of the bridge will be made of granite with steel fasteners. You can get an idea of ​​the size of these towers from the fact that the largest of them (at a depth of 55 meters) will have a base area of ​​1604 square meters. Only steel will be used throughout due to its strength. To build the towers, 76,000 tons of steel and 4 million cubic meters of granite will be required. The superstructure of the bridge will also require another 772,000 tons of steel. The total cost of construction is estimated at 860 million francs, but could reach a billion.

The construction of the towers is carried out using iron caissons, from granite blocks held together with steel ties and cement. The stonework rises above the surface of the water by 21 meters at low tide and 14 meters at high tide (the English Channel level fluctuates by 7 meters). Therefore, at a depth of 55 meters, the masonry would be 76 meters high, assuming that the masonry begins directly on the seabed.

The stone towers will each be topped by two steel towers. The latter will be held together by huge steel beams and have a height of 40 meters. The rails will lie another 11 meters higher, so that trains will run at an altitude of 72 meters (about 35 1/2 fathoms) from the surface of the sea (at low tide). But the steel cover goes above the level of the rails by another 54 meters. Thus, the main tower, placed at a depth of 55 meters, will have a total height of 181 meters (90 fathoms), including 76 meters of masonry. The bridge spans in deep places will be alternately 500 and 300 meters; at smaller ones of 350 and 200 meters, also alternately; finally, near the coast the spans will alternate at 250-100 meters. Flights of 500 meters (half a mile) are more difficult than the Eiffel Tower. But technology has made such enormous strides in recent years that the feasibility of this grandiose project is quite and undoubtedly possible.

1. The length of the Channel Tunnel is 51 km, of which 39 pass directly under the strait. Trains traveling from London to Paris and back spend 20 to 35 minutes in the tunnel.

2. Thanks to the Eurotunnel, you can travel from Paris to London by train in just 2 hours and 15 minutes.

3. Contrary to misconception, the English Channel Tunnel is not the longest railway tunnel in the world, but only ranks third.

The second place is at the Japanese Seikan tunnel, connecting the islands of Honshu and Hokkaido, the length of which is 53.85 km.

And the longest in the world is the Gotthard railway tunnel in the Swiss Alps, the official opening of which is scheduled for 2017. Its length is 57 km.

4. The idea of ​​building a tunnel connecting England and continental Europe was first mooted at the beginning of the 19th century, but was rejected for a long time due to British fears that the structure could be used for a military invasion of the island.

5. Construction of the tunnel began in 1881 and 1922. For the first time, the builders managed to cover 2026 meters on the English side and 1829 meters on the French side. In the second, tunnel drilling stopped at only 128 meters. Both times construction was interrupted for political reasons.

6. In the post-war period, the Channel Tunnel project progressed extremely slowly.

The research team began work in 1957, the project was approved in 1973, after which it was frozen again, and the actual construction of the tunnel began only on December 15, 1987.

7. The Eurotunnel technically consists of three tunnels - two main ones, which have a track for trains going north and south, and one small service tunnel.

The service tunnel has passages every 375 meters that connect it with the main ones. It is designed for access to the main tunnels of maintenance personnel and emergency evacuation of people in case of danger.

8. Road transport travels through the Channel Tunnel in special trains.

At the same time, drivers and passengers of passenger cars transported by Eurotunnel Shuttle trains do not leave their vehicles. The procedure for loading a car into a carriage takes no more than eight minutes.

9. Over the twenty years of operation of the Eurotunnel, seven major incidents occurred in it, due to which the normal operation of the tunnel was disrupted for a period of from several hours to several months.

Most of the incidents were related to fires, however, thanks to the professional actions of rescuers, casualties were avoided.

10. A total of about £10 billion was spent on the construction of the Eurotunnel, and the project cost of construction was exceeded by 80 percent.

According to experts, the payback period of the project may exceed 1000 years.