No matter how difficult the road by sea was, people believed that it was easier than the land route: after all, in the old days, caravan routes sometimes passed through the possessions of peoples and tribes at war with each other, while the sea belonged to no one. Moving on land, one could lose not only property, but also life. The same thing could have happened at sea, but the elements there were hostile, which people at that time were less afraid of than other people!

Drakkars of the Sea Kings

Brave Sailors

Safety and success in navigation largely depended on the design and properties of the ships used by travelers - their strength and stability, seaworthiness, and carrying capacity. It was during the Middle Ages that people were able to create ships that changed the entire course of the history of navigation. Several types of such ships are known, but the first among them are rightfully the drakkars of the legendary northern warriors and travelers - the Vikings. The abundance of wood - oak and pine, as well as the presence of first-class iron ore, which allowed the Scandinavians to have excellent iron tools, contributed to the rapid construction of many ships, which became the real basis of their civilization. The Vikings called ships that could be used for both transport and military purposes “carf”. Purely combat ships were called " drakkar"(dragon) and " auger" (snake). Many of the heads (noble Normans) had ships with purple sails embroidered with gold, and on gilded masts they had golden lanterns or weather vanes in the form of birds with outstretched wings. Viking ships were from 22 to 26 m in length (but by the end of the Viking era there were ships 30 and even 50 m long), and their width in the middle part ranged from 3 to 5 m. An important advantage of the drakkar was the keel - a longitudinal beam made of solid oak trunk, running along the entire bottom from bow to stern. The keel made the ship strong and stable in the waves and allowed the ship to be dragged ashore without damaging the hull. In the middle of the ship there was one mast, which in calm weather could be removed and stored on the deck, 10-12 m high, and the same yard. The length of the oars could be 4-6 m, the number of rowers from 14 to 20 rows or even more. The steering oar, which was turned using a short transverse handle - a tiller - was usually located at the stern on the right.

Knorr- a merchant ship - was smaller than a drakkar, but wider. Vessels of this type had not one, but two decks - at the bow and at the stern, and all the space between them was occupied by cargo. On longships, cargo and supplies were stored in the hold below deck. The shape of the sail was important. It was believed that the Normans should have it rectangular. If the sailors saw a sail in the sea in the shape of a square expanding downward, then the ship was already considered alien and, possibly, enemy. Most often, such enemies of the Normans were given, or representatives of other northern people. In this case, the Vikings prepared for any outcome of the meeting on the high seas. Thus, in the old days, the sail played the same role as flags in later times: identifying an oncoming ship as one’s own or someone else’s, being ready to greet sailors in a friendly manner or to hold the line.

Multi-oared, sailless ships of Scandinavia In Scandinavia, navigation has been known since Neolithic times (the so-called “New Stone Age”), which is confirmed by rock paintings found by scientists. However, the residents of these places achieved the greatest success in shipbuilding only in the 8th century. AD, when, due to overpopulation of their own lands, they began campaigns against their neighbors. For three centuries, the Vikings - desperate pirates, traders and brave travelers - from the 9th to the middle of the 11th century. shocked Europe with their swift and brutal sea raids. The Vikings visited Iceland, Greenland, and even managed to overcome the icy waters of the North Atlantic on their durable longships, becoming the first Europeans to see the shores of America. There is information about their clashes with Indians.

Witness of antiquity

How do we know what Viking ships looked like? Why are they now depicted with striped sails? Scientists know about this thanks to the most famous embroidery of the Middle Ages - the “Queen Matilda Carpet”, which immortalized the exploits of her husband, King William I the Conqueror.

On a huge strip of canvas, 68.3 m long and 50 cm wide, that has survived to this day (the “Bayenne Canvas”), 58 scenes of the conquest of England by William I the Conqueror are embroidered. Each scene is accompanied by explanatory inscriptions in Latin. The contours of the design are made with a stem stitch, and the remaining parts are made with satin stitch. On the wide border above and below are embroidered scenes from Aesop's fables, scenes of plowing, hunting and the battle itself. The embroidery used woolen threads in eight colors: three shades of blue, bright green, dark green, red, yellow and gray. There is some whimsicality in the coloring of the plots. For example, on it you can see a blue horse and a man with green hair.

In addition to people and horses, this embroidery depicts the ships on which William I transported his army from Normandy to England. Striped sails and masts decorated with “golden” weather vanes are clearly visible - wind indicators, most likely made of slotted gilded tin. Then, in 1066, to transport his troops, and primarily his large cavalry, William I assembled a fleet of several hundred longships, on which he crossed the English Channel. Due to the fact that even with a load they were immersed in the water by only one meter, that is, they had a shallow draft, they could go into very shallow water, where they could only be tilted a little in order to quickly land people and horses on the ground. This was the last known use of longships in war, after which their use was gradually abandoned in favor of shorter, wider and heavier vessels. The images on the “carpet” are confirmed by archaeological finds. The ancient Norwegian sailing ships found in the 19th century in Thun and Gokstad, and later in Oseberg, and in 1935 in Ladby gave a complete picture of what they really looked like. It got to the point that in 1893, in the Norwegian city of Sandefjord, Captain Christian Christiansen built an exact copy of the ship from Gokstad, called the Viking. In just 40 days he crossed the stormy Atlantic.

The sailors believed that the figures of deities and fantastic creatures would help them cope with the powerful natural elements. Ancient poets-storytellers of the Normans - skalds- in his poems könningah They called the Ship “horse of the sea” and “serpent of the waves.” The Normans treated the ship as a living creature. On ships of subsequent centuries, the figures on the bow of the ship played the role of identification marks of the owners or noble patrons of the ship, and then completely turned into decorations, in the creation of which prominent artists and sculptors often took part.

The skin on the longships was overlapped, like modern siding. Shown here is the assembly of the sheathing using nails or flexible wicker rods (or rope). The holes, after the oars were removed from them, were closed with plugs.

Scientists are still debating where the word “Viking” came from. It is translated both as “children of the bays” - from the Norwegian word “vik” - “bay”, and from the Norman root, the meaning of which comes down to the Russian word “wander”. One way or another, we are talking about people who left their home and hearth for a long time and went on long voyages under the leadership of their military leader - the king. These dashing people were called Vikings if they wanted to talk about their robber lifestyle, but Normans - when they emphasized their belonging to the peoples of the North. After all, the word “Norman” translated from Old Scandinavian means “northern man”.

Speed, strength, pressure

After the collapse of the powerful Roman Empire and the death of the Western Roman Empire in 476, maritime trade in the Mediterranean basin was in decline. The art of building magnificent sailing-rowing triremes and penthers has also been forgotten. Yes, they were not needed. After all, who now opposed the same Byzantium, which remained an outpost of civilization among the boundless sea of ​​barbarian tribes that flooded Europe? The Slavs, on their one-tree boats, were dangerous in numbers. But to fight them, the famous “Greek fire” was enough - a flammable mixture that continued to burn even on water. The Arabs, who annoyed them a lot at the beginning, could not resist the “Greek fire,” even if they already had ships with sails. In northern Europe, in Scandinavia, there were no land roads at all, and here the ship became the main means of communication. It was in these places that the Normans lived - North Germanic tribes, excellent shipbuilders, sea pirates, warriors and traders, who played an important role in the history of many states and peoples of Europe.

The first Viking longships did not yet have benches for rowers. During calm seas, the Vikings rowed while sitting on their chests. The presence of a large sail gave the drakkars unprecedented speed at that time. The Vikings boldly rushed to board warships or merchant ships they liked. To break through the hull of enemy ships, the Vikings threw sharp stones at it. The outcome of the battle was decided by hand-to-hand combat. The Vikings often used two types of battle axes: the “bearded” one, named after the shape of the blade, and an ax with a wide crescent-shaped blade. Long spears with grappling hooks, clubs, and massive war hammers were widely used in battle. The Vikings were skilled at throwing spears.

Having landed on a foreign shore, the Vikings dragged their “dragons” onto land and set up camp. After their scouts reported the strength of the future enemy, the Vikings, with a sudden, swift attack of a heavily armed phalanx, broke through his defenses and continued their merciless offensive. If the enemy's tactics were unclear and his army was outnumbered, the Vikings would hide one of their troops in ambush. The Viking battle formation on land was a phalanx, in the front ranks of which stood heavily armed warriors with large, almost man-sized shields. The shields were covered with ox skin, and with their lower part they easily stuck into the ground. The Vikings also knew the wedge formation, when each subsequent row had one more warrior. The Vikings had almost no cavalry: they were experienced sailors and brave “sea paratroopers”. The most desperate Viking warriors were called berserkers - “brave”. They fought in the front ranks, without hiding behind shields and often naked to the waist or dressed in wolf skins. At the moment of the attack, they lost their sense of self-preservation; no fortifications or the number of the enemy embarrassed them. Feeling no pain, they growled like wild animals, howled and furiously knocked on their shields. Then they could only be stopped by a mortal wound or an enemy spear.

The Viking sword was an expensive weapon. It was often obtained in battle. The cross-shaped handle was held with one hand. To prevent the sword from slipping out of the hands, a small ball was attached to its end. The Normans did not use captured weapons until they were magically painted (chased or inlaid with whale teeth or animal bone) and sacred spells were recited. Particular importance was attached to the decoration of sword hilts: the Vikings believed that the design contained power that was transferred to the warrior’s hand. The second most important Viking weapon, the axe, was attached to a long handle. Possessing such leverage when striking, the Viking could break not only the enemy’s armor, but also hit his cavalry, cut thick ropes, oars and masts, break the sides of ships, powerful boards of gates and wooden fortifications.

The Vikings did not always win. The grueling ten-month Viking siege of Paris in 885-886. ended in failure. The city militia, led by Count Ed of Paris, bravely withstood the siege. And only 25 years later the Normans recaptured part of the coast from the French king, on which they founded their duchy of Normandy.

Ushkuy - Volga freemen

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Long before the Baptism of Rus' in 988, the Slavs were brave sailors and more than once approached the walls of Constantinople on their one-tree ships. Well, what happened in Rus' later, when it strained its strength in the fight against the Mongol invasion? It turns out that there was no stagnation in shipbuilding at this time. On the contrary, it was at this time, at the end of the 13th century, that a new type of ship was created in Rus' -. Perhaps its name came from the polar bear, which in northern Russia was called ushkuy.

Novgorod shipbuilders built ears from pine wood rich in resin. The keel was hewn out from one trunk, after which the ends and frames-springs, which were made from thick branches with natural curvature, due to which the frames had great strength. The casing of the hull was made of hewn boards and secured to the frame with wooden nails (the ends of which were wedged together with wedges). The boards were sewn together with willow twigs. The internal lining consisted of a flooring on the bottom and two belts: upper and middle, on the upper edge of which the rowers' benches rested. The oars were covered with leather at the points of contact with the skin of the eye. Since the ends of the bow and stern of the ship were symmetrical, it could move away from the shore without turning around, which was important for a ship that was often used in battles. However, merchants used them just as willingly. The glory of the Ushkuis is associated with the Novgorod Ushkuiniki, whose campaigns began at the end of the 13th century. In England, such people were called outlaws - “outlaw people.” In Rus' they had their own appropriate name - freemen. Separated from their communities, the brave Ushkuin warriors (like the Cossacks later) made a living by robbing the opponents of Rus': Norwegians and Swedes, and even dared to attack the Golden Horde. So, in 1360, 20 years before the Battle of Kulikovo, they marched along the entire Volga and, attacking Horde cities, captured great wealth. The Khan of the Golden Horde demanded that the Russian princes hand over the ushkuyniks, and they... agreed: they secretly approached their Kostroma camp, captured the soldiers, and then handed them over to the Horde. The ushkuyniks could not forgive such treachery and since then they took revenge on the princes of Rostov and Nizhny Novgorod in every possible way and Suzdal, who participated in this evil deed, and Kostroma itself was robbed every time they sailed past. Several times the Ushkuiniki ravaged the Horde city of Bulgar near Kazan, and in 1374 they went down the Volga and even captured Sarai, the capital of the Horde! The end of the history of the Ushkuiniks is associated with the name of Grand Duke Ivan III, who in 1478 defeated Novgorod and thereby deprived them of shelter, and they did not find a new place in Rus'.

Ushkui were divided into sea and river. Both had one removable mast. Instead of a rudder, just like on Viking ships, a stern oar was used. River abalones could take on board up to 30 people. The dimensions of the ears could be 12-14 m in length, 2.5 m in width, draft - 0.4-0.6 m, with a side height of up to 1 m.

Nave, dromon - ships of the Mediterranean Sea

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While Viking ships plied the northern seas of Europe, completely different ships sailed in the south, in the basin of the warm Mediterranean Sea. Indeed, despite the death of the Western Roman Empire, its eastern part survived, and with it the knowledge necessary for the construction of large and complex ships, such as, for example, a galley. As time passed, people learned to build merchant ships that were equipped to transport grain, silk and spices from Egypt, Asia Minor to Greek and Italian ports. However, such a profitable trade was at the same time very dangerous: sea robbers were rampant here.

Flying on the waves

Byzantine galleys, known since the 7th century, were warships that had one or two rows of oars and one or two masts with oblique triangular sails. There were two steering oars, as before, and the ram protrusion was still retained in the bow. However, now it was practically no longer used, since the galleys of the Byzantines, in addition to traditional throwing machines, also had on board installations for launching their mysterious fire mixture - “Greek fire”. A lot of recipes have come down to us, so it’s difficult to say which of them the Byzantines themselves used. But its long and persistent flammability (it could not be extinguished) is beyond doubt. The main feature of both large and small ships of the Mediterranean were triangular, or “lateen” sails: they create a “wing effect” and allow movement at an angle to the direction of the wind (up to 30 degrees relative to the axis of the ship). Such a sail converts even the lightest breeze into useful thrust. The size of the ships grew during the Crusades of 1096-1270, when it was necessary to transport heavily armed crusaders, soldiers and pilgrims from Europe to Palestine.

The heavy cargo on the Genoese ship was placed in the hold. Horses were transported suspended from the ceiling - the animals barely touched the floor with their hooves. This made it possible to transport them in strong rolling conditions. The ship did not yet have high superstructures. It was steered using a single steering oar. At night, the naves were illuminated with lanterns, and according to the laws of that time, the number of lanterns had to correspond to the size of the team.

Heading for Europe!

The galleys, most of which were occupied by slave rowers chained to their benches, could not transport crusaders and pilgrims to Palestine. Mediterranean shipbuilders built huge, clumsy, but very heavy-duty ships - naves. Their plating was covered, but the sails were lateen, and the hulls had residential superstructures for passengers rising 10-15 m above the water. At the stern there were two short and wide steering oars. The nave crew consisted of comita with a silver whistle for giving commands; cartridge who controlled the sails; pilot plotting a course; two helmsmen and physically strong Galiots-rowers.

The voyage from Venice to Jaffa in Palestine lasted ten weeks. Pilgrims who had already visited the Holy Land recommended that those departing take with them their blankets, pillow, clean towels, a supply of wine and water, crackers, as well as a cage with birds, pork hams, smoked tongues and dried fish. All this was provided on the ships, but, as the pilgrims said, the linen and towels were stale, rancid crackers were hard as stone, with maggots, spiders and worms; spoiled wine. But more often they talked about the need to take incense with them, because on the decks in the heat there was an unbearable stench from horse manure and the excrement of pilgrim passengers who suffered from seasickness. The decks were covered with sand, but it was only removed upon arrival at the port. On the approach to the island of Rhodes, shipbuilders could encounter pirates, from whom they often paid off. During the journey, there were cases of passengers dying from disease. And yet, despite all the difficulties, voyages to the shores of the Middle East and Africa were made more and more often. During the journey, rich passengers indulged in luxurious meals and entertainment. They took with them pages, a majordomo and valet, and even musicians to entertain them. Along the way, the pilgrims landed on the island of Corfu, where they hunted goats. We also landed on other islands to stretch our legs and rest.

Koggi - round ships

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Drakkars stopped appearing in the northern seas in the 13th century. New ships appeared - pot-bellied, high-sided, single-masted sailing ships carrying goods. They were called "round ships" - coggami(from ancient German kugg - round). They could not develop high speed, but they carried a large load on board, which was what the merchants, who were strengthening their position, required. The design and rigging provided the loaded cogs with good stability.

Floating fortresses trade and defend

A characteristic feature of the North Sea coggs were tower-like platforms - castles (castles) - at the bow and stern for archers. Ship castles were built on both military and merchant ships. A mast assembled from several logs was installed exactly in the middle of the ship. A special “barrel” was attached to the mast for observers and archers, equipped with a system of blocks to lift ammunition up. Later, the “barrel” was structurally improved on karakkas and received the name mars, which could accommodate up to 12 archers or crossbowmen.

Strong frames at a distance of 0.5 m from each other, oak plating 50 mm thick and a deck laid on beams - transverse beams of the hull, the ends of which were often brought out through the plating - these are the important features of these ships. The steering wheel, which was replaced in the 13th century, also became a novelty. a steering oar, and straight stems, strongly beveled towards the keel line - the bow and stern ends of the vessel. The stem ended with an inclined mast - a bowsprit, which served to stretch the sail in front. The greatest length of the coggs of the Hanseatic Trade Union was approximately 30 m, waterline length - 20 m, width - 7.5 m, draft - 3 m, carrying capacity up to 500 tons.

Light naval gun - falconette 1492 Such guns were installed on the ships of Columbus's squadron. They were attached to turrets (a). Each gun had several charging chambers with carrying handles (b), which were loaded in advance and stored separately from the barrel. The hole in the chamber was covered by a wad: (c), while the cannonball (d) was rolled into the barrel before firing, into which a wad was also inserted before so that it would not roll out. Then a charging chamber with gunpowder was attached to the barrel and locked with a wedge (e). Two arcs on the swivel served to vertically aim the gun barrel (e). The technology for manufacturing such tools (g) was labor-intensive and complex. The barrel was forged from iron bars, they were welded and red-hot iron hoops were put on them, tightening the muzzle of the gun.

It is interesting that many large ships of that time, as well as modern ferries and car carriers with horizontal unloading, were equipped with side ports that served for loading and unloading goods. This allowed them to take cargo on deck and at the same time unload the brought goods through the same port. In the second half of the 15th century. two-masted and later three-masted coggs appeared. Their displacement was 300-500 tons. To protect against pirates and enemy ships, Hansa merchant ships had on board crossbowmen and several bombards - powerful weapons for that time that fired stone cannonballs. The length of military coggs reached 28 m, width 8 m, draft 2.8 m, and displacement of 500 tons or more. At the stern and bow of the trading and military coggs there were still high superstructures. In the Mediterranean Sea, two-masted coggs with slanting sails were sometimes found. At the same time, despite all the improvements, coggs remained coastal ships - suitable for sailing only near the coast. Meanwhile, Europe needed more and more spices, and their flow through the Mediterranean ports began to dry up due to the fact that even before the fall of Constantinople in 1453, the Turks had captured all the coasts of Syria and Palestine, as well as North Africa.

Karakka, caravel - long-distance ship

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One of the features of shipbuilding in the Mediterranean was planking, in which the boards were tightly fitted with edges one to another, and did not overlap each other, as with the Vikings and Venetian naves. With this method of building a ship, building material was saved, since half as many boards were required for the hull, and most importantly, ships with such plating were lighter and faster. New methods of construction, spreading across European countries, also contributed to the emergence of new ships. In the first half of the 15th century. became the largest European ship used for military and commercial purposes. It had developed superstructures at the bow and stern, covered on top with special roofs made of beams, over which fabric was stretched to protect from the sun, and a net to protect against boarding. She did not allow enemies to jump onto the deck from the superstructure of her ship and at the same time did not interfere with shooting at them. The sides of this vessel were bent inward, making boarding difficult. The length of such a carrack could reach 35.8 m, width 5.7 m, draft 4.1 m, carrying capacity 540 tons. The crew of the vessel was 80-90 people. Trade karaks had 10-12 guns, and military ones could have up to 40! Such ships have already gone on long and long voyages. Later, caravels - ships of the era of the Great Geographical Discoveries - began to be built in Europe in the 15th century, based on the type of carracks and coggs with three masts and smooth plating. It is believed that the first such ship was built by a shipwright, the Frenchman Julian, at the Zuider Zee shipyards in Holland in 1470. Columbus's ships "Pinta" and "Nina" were also caravels, while his flagship ship "Santa Maria" ( in his notes he calls it “nao” - “large ship”) most likely it was a karakka, which means it belonged to the same “round” ships.

Multi-deck carracks had three masts with different sails: on the fore and main masts (first and second) they were straight, and on the last third mizzen mast there was an oblique lateen sail, which made maneuvering easier. On the mars with a supply of weapons, sentinels or riflemen were located.	The Hanseatic League, centered in Lübeck, united the merchant Hanse from about 170 European cities (including the Russian Novgorod, Pskov and Smolensk), built many strong cargo-lifting ships. Much attention was paid to the construction of military cogs, the team of which included experienced shooters and artillerymen.

Curragh, ganyi, mtepi, or What is stronger - a thread or a nail?

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Those centuries, which in relation to Europe we call the Middle Ages, became an era when peoples living far from each other began to actively study each other’s life and customs. This was facilitated not only by land crossings of trade caravans and military expeditions, but also by bold journeys across the seas and even oceans. Long voyages became more and more commonplace. The Irish and Eskimos, Arabs and Africans, the Chinese and Japanese equipped a wide variety of warships, fishing and merchant vessels: dried apricots, kuttumarams, mtepis, umiaks, dhows, junks, etc. The technology for assembling many of them was unusual for modern people. But this did not prevent such ships from successfully crossing the sea.

Medieval chronicles indicate that the inhabitants of Ireland made long voyages (even to America!) on ships covered... with leather. Leather pieces of sheathing were sewn together, and the body set was fastened with strong straps. A bold experiment conducted in 1977 by Irish historian and writer Timothy Severin helped confirm that sailing on ships made of leather was possible. He decided to cross the Atlantic Ocean on a leather boat - a curragh or carre.

Pictish boat - . The Romans first learned about the Picts and Scots precisely as skilled sailors who carried out raids from the sea. Celtic boat - was a frame covered with bull hides.	"Saint Brendan" - a ship made of leather. The sails feature a “cross in a halo” - the symbol of the monks of Ireland. For the construction of this dried apricot, 49 bovine skins were processed.	The wood of the Arabian ship that Timothy Severin built was selected from the forests of South India, where the material was also obtained by ancient shipbuilders. Just like a thousand years ago, elephants carried logs out of the forest. Wood glue was also collected there, which was then used to seal the joints of the sheathing. The sails were made from cotton fabric.

The curragh could be up to 15 m long. On Ahlekta coins, the curragh is depicted with seven oars on board and one sail. Curraghs reconstructed in Ireland have nine oars on board, plus a helm on the starboard side. Mast with straight sails on a transverse yard. There are several more images of the curragh, the weight number fluctuates around seven. Each oar was rowed by two or three oarsmen. There is evidence of fleets of over a hundred boats. Such a fchot could transport more than a thousand people. At least one major naval battle took place in 719.

According to legend, he made a similar voyage in the 6th century. Irish monk Brendan. To make the hull waterproof, the skins were impregnated with wax. The boat, named "St. Brendan", had a length of 10.9 m, a width of 2.4 m. It was equipped with two masts with straight sails and a wide-bladed steering oar on the right side. The voyage of the brave traveler and his crew continued intermittently for about two years. They were able to cross the Atlantic and reach the coast of North America.

Arabs teach Europeans

Who doesn’t know, for example, the word “varnish”? However, few people know that this is an Arabic word and only one example of the influence of Arab culture on medieval Europe, which is still noticeable today. Indeed, in addition to the word “varnish”, the words “algebra”, “admiral”, “arsenal”, “bazaar”, “barrack”, “barge”, “guitar” passed into European languages ​​from Arabic and the languages ​​of other countries that were part of the Arab Caliphate. , “decanter”, “sofa”, “camisole”, “caravan”, “kaftan”, “pouch”, “shop”, “marinade”, “marmalade”, “mattress”, “cucumber”, “peach”, “ talisman”, “tulip”, “sofa”, “bird cherry”, “digit”, etc. The Arabs taught the Europeans how to make sugar, candy and perfume.

The Arabs made a great contribution to the development of navigation and shipbuilding; they turned out to be tireless travelers and skilled shipwrights. Some navigational instruments were invented by Arab sailors. Many stars have Arabic names. For example, the name of the star Vega in the constellation Aira means “Falling Kite”, Deneb in the constellation Cygnus means “Tail”, Mencalinan in the constellation Auriga means “Left Shoulder of the Charioteer”, and Betelgeuse in the constellation Orion means “Armpit of the One in the Center”. Of course, such names helped navigators who knew the main constellations find this or that star and, based on how much it shifted in the sky, determine the location of the ship. If you, reader, ever have the opportunity to visit the United Arab Emirates, on the sultry Arabian Peninsula, next to modern snow-white liners you will see ancient Arab ships - dhows, which have not changed a bit for a whole millennium! Nowadays, one of these ships was built by the famous traveler Timothy Severin, who, after sailing on the St. Brendan, decided to follow in the footsteps of the legendary Sinbad the Sailor from the Arabian Nights tales. In full accordance with the traditions of Arab shipbuilders in 1980-1981. a 27-meter copy of the ship was made -. Moreover, all the boards of the body were sewn using cords twisted by hand from coconut fiber! Arab craftsmen, as it turned out, did not use nails at that time. Modern researchers had to weave 740 km of cord, and then drill many holes in the boards to tie them into a single whole. All materials were brought to the Sultanate of Oman, where local boat builders manufactured and launched this ship. In total, the research and construction of the vessel itself took 30 months; For another five months, future travelers learned the art of sailing, and then successfully completed their planned voyage. The travel route was laid from Oman to China. Together with Severin, 25 people went on an eight-month voyage, who decided to completely reproduce the life on the ship, the control of the ship and the methods of navigation that were used in the 9th century. Arab merchant seafarers. It turned out that the “stitched” ships were in no way inferior in strength to those assembled on nails, and besides (by the standards of the medieval era) they were much cheaper.

Junks and fair winds of the celestial empire

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Jonks were the first ships in the history of navigation to have watertight bulkheads. The rudder passed through the stern appeared on these ships several centuries earlier than on the Hanseatic cogg, and in general their design turned out to be so perfect that it did not change for centuries. According to many historians, shipbuilding in China originated even earlier than in Ancient Egypt. Information has reached our days about the voyage of the Chinese to an overseas country, which, according to its description, is very similar to Mexico. But this was several thousand years before the new era. In the 3rd century. AD The Chinese also invented the first magnetic compass, which made navigation very easy for them.

Detailed descriptions of medieval Chinese junks were left to us by the famous Venetian merchant Marco Polo after his famous journey to China in 1271 - 1295. What struck him most was that some of them had four masts, and spare ones could be added to them to raise additional sails. European shipbuilders recognized such advantages of junks as simplicity and high efficiency of sailing equipment. Thanks to their shallow draft, they had access to both river mouths and coastal sea areas.

Multi-masted ocean junk. Such ships were equipped as military ships and formed the fleet of the Emperor of China. So in the 13th century. 1000 sea junks with 100,000 (!) soldiers on board were sent to the Japanese archipelago. If this fleet had not been destroyed by a powerful typhoon, the development of the countries in this region would have taken a different path.	The large sails of the junks, made of reed mats, were reinforced with horizontal bamboo slats - stiffening ribs, which allowed them to withstand strong winds without much harm.	Japanese junks were somewhat different from the junks of China, since they had to sail among the islands of the Japanese archipelago where it would be difficult for large flat-bottomed ships to withstand the pressure of the ocean elements.

Curious Zheng He

It is known that more than 300 different types of junks were created in China, often unsightly in appearance, with sails made of mats, but nevertheless exceptionally seaworthy and well-handled. Preserved to this day, they amaze with their quality, spaciousness and practicality. All of them - regardless of their purpose - were very similar: they had a flat bottom, vertical sides of the hull, and a slightly pointed nose. As on ancient Greek European ships, eyes were painted on the bow of the hull. The superstructures in the stern protruded beyond the hull. On some junks the rudder could be raised and lowered through a special hole in the stern. Such a rudder did not have steering loops and was held in place by cables that passed under the bottom of the ship and were secured to the bow. The hull of a junk about 45 m long could consist of 35-37 frames, ensuring the strength of the hull, and waterproof bulkheads, making it unsinkable. Some large junks had a crew of 200 and could carry up to 1,000 passengers and about 1,000 tons of cargo. Large junks formed the squadron of the famous Chinese traveler Zheng He, who, between 1405 and 1433, commanding a fleet of more than 300 ships with a crew of 70 thousand people, made seven long-distance expeditions to the West in a row. His ships passed through six seas and two oceans and reached the city of Hormuz, located at the narrowest point of the Persian Gulf. He also visited Aden, Mogadishu, after which he reached the eastern coast of Africa south of the island of Zanzibar. At that time, ships of either Chinese or European merchants had never come here, especially such large ones as those of Zheng He. Sometimes it’s hard to believe that they could be so large: the largest are 140 m long and 58 m wide. Medium ships were not much inferior to them: 108 m in length and 48 m in width. Of course, it was quite difficult to control such giants, but they were obedient to the sails, and in calm conditions they could move with the help of oars, and each oar was controlled by 30 rowers!

Zheng He rendered outstanding services to his country, but after the death of the emperor who patronized him, his memory began to be eradicated, and reports of his voyages were destroyed. For some reason, they began to believe that Zheng He’s campaigns depleted the treasury, and in return they brought only luxury items and rare animals. The fact that thanks to them, knowledge about distant lands and countries was accumulated, sea routes were laid out, was not of interest to officials.

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Sailing and rowing ship - galleas

Galeasses were heavy, clumsy, slow-moving ships that could not withstand bad weather on the open sea. We had to put eight or nine oarsmen on one oar.

Galleys and galleasses did not have space to transport goods, military equipment or large numbers of people. For such transportation in those days, short and wide, but high-sided sailing ships were built in Italy; they were called naves. To combat sea pirates, the naves were armed. At the top of the mast there was an observation post - “Mars”, and at the stern and on the bow there were elevations for the shooters.

Gradually, the armed naves turned into warships with superstructures at the bow and stern of several floors.

To make the naves fast, shipbuilders began to build them narrower and longer, but the high bow and stern superstructures were retained. Such ships were called galleons. But the galleons were also very bulky and not sufficiently adapted to sailing in bad weather in the open ocean.

Middle Ages ship - nave

Since ancient times, the peoples of Europe have traded with India, famous for its fabulous riches, rare diamonds, pearls, ivory and various spices. Only a mixed land-sea route to this country was known - through Asia Minor or Egypt. It was a difficult path - merchants had to cross the territory of several states; they encountered many obstacles on their way. But the thirst for big profits forced the merchants to take risks and dangers.

After the conquest by the Arabs and then the Turks (in the 13th and 14th centuries) of all the territories on the land route to India, Arab and Turkish merchants concentrated all trade with this country in their hands. This encouraged Europeans to look for a sea route to India.

That is why European sea voyages to the west and south of the Atlantic, which began in the 14th century, began to become more frequent in the 15th century. The ships of the Portuguese were the first to appear on these routes, then the Spaniards. They moved further and further from the shores of Europe. First the Canary Islands were discovered, then the Azores. Ships sailed even further south along the western coast of Africa, seizing the lands of this continent and enslaving the peoples who inhabited them. In I486, the Portuguese circumnavigated Africa from the south, but did not reach India. The Portuguese navigator Vasco da Gama managed to do this in 1498.

Six years earlier, in 1492, the Genoese Christopher Columbus, having gone at the head of a Spanish expedition in search of a sea route to India, reached the shores of South America and thereby marked the beginning of the Spanish conquest of Mexico and the countries of South America. By this time, the expedition of the British colonialists reached North America.

Taking advantage of firearms, Europeans imposed their dominance in the newly discovered countries of Africa and America, robbed and destroyed the local population, and turned the natives into slaves.

Thus began the conquest of colonies by Western European states and the enslavement of colonial peoples.

To conquer colonies and rob colonial peoples, to fight capitalist predators among themselves for colonies and their wealth in the stormy expanses of the oceans, well-armed, seaworthy, fast, agile ships that can withstand storms and bad weather were needed.

Already by the beginning of the 16th century, the growing demand for industrial products led to an increase in the number and improvement of the technical equipment of the first capitalist enterprises - manufactories. Material processing technology advanced, metallurgical production began to improve, and shipbuilding technology also improved.

The high and heavy superstructures at the stern and bow gradually became smaller and finally disappeared altogether; the warship lengthened, took on more slender outlines, the number of sails on it increased, and their control was built in such a way that in all cases it was possible to make the best use of even the slightest breeze.

Artillerymen improved ship guns in every possible way in order to better use them in naval combat. And they tried to build the ships so that more guns could be placed and so that their fire would cause the greatest damage to the enemy.

In 1571, 250 ships of the Spanish-Venetian fleet and 300 ships of the Turkish fleet met in battle near Lepanto (Greece). As before, ships went into battle with oars, “fell down” on board and decided the battle by hand-to-hand combat. But, in addition to throwing machines, the ships already had cannons. The number of cannons on the ships of the Spanish-Venetian fleet was several times greater than that of the Turks. Most of the Spaniards and Venetians were armed with firearms - arquebuses. The Turks relied more on bows and crossbows. The battle ended in victory for the Spanish-Venetian fleet. And although the guns, which were not yet fast enough and accurate enough, did not play a decisive role in this battle, it became clear that these weapons had a great future in military operations at sea.

At the beginning of the 16th century, shipbuilders began cutting holes in the sides of ships - ports - for cannon barrels and laying solid, even decks for cannons.

They began to build large ships with two or three lines of ports and the same number of cannon decks. This was of great importance for the development of large, heavily armed sailing ships.

Previously, guns of various calibers were located in the stern and bow superstructures and on the upper deck without any system. Now the cannons were lined up in orderly lines along the sides of the ship in two or three tiers.

High superstructures and turrets were left for the shooters at the stern and bow of the ship. The artillery of these ships began to play a large role in naval battles. The number of guns increased sharply, and the fire of linearly positioned artillery

The first sailing ships of the Middle Ages appeared during the Crusades. Performing their feats of arms, the “defenders of the Holy Sepulcher” moved around the Mediterranean Sea on sailing naves.

Nave is by no means the name of a specific type of ship; most likely, all the first sailing ships were called that way. Descriptions of the naves of the 10th-12th centuries, unfortunately, have not survived, and we know almost nothing about these ships.

In the 13th century French king Louis IX begins to assemble a fleet for the first two crusades. He signs contracts for the lease of sailing ships built in Venice, Marseille and Genoa.

Venetian nave

The texts of these contracts, which have survived to this day, became the first accurate descriptions of the naves. Judging by them, the Neft of those years was a fairly large ship with a displacement of up to 600 tons. The bow and stern with equally high cheekbones had high multi-tiered superstructures where crossbowmen were stationed during the battle.

As the naves improved, the platforms for soldiers gradually shifted to the stems. The cabins were located on the deck with ledges extending beyond the stern. There was no rudder yet - as before, it was replaced by two short, wide steering oars, for which special holes were cut out in the stern.

The first naves were single-masted. Subsequently, they began to be equipped with two single-tree masts. A high foremast was installed at the very bow of the ship. The mainmast was located in the middle of the hull and was no longer than the keel. On the tops (tops) of the masts, tops were built - protected platforms for observers and shooters. For huge lateen sails, it was necessary to make composite yards - from two halves, fastened with cable vulings. It was not very easy to control the sails, especially when changing to another tack. Each nave was supposed to have three spare masts - probably because the latter often broke.

Cogg

Wulings are a bandage of several turns of cable for tightening parts of the lower masts together.

Tack - the ship's course relative to the wind. If the wind blows on the spruce side, then they say that the ship is sailing on the left tack, if on the starboard, then on the starboard tack.

A capstan is a device for selecting (raising) an anchor.

There were three boats on the naves and countless anchors - usually up to twenty. In those days, spiers were not yet known. It was often impossible to lift the anchor, which sometimes weighed more than a ton, by hand. Therefore, sailors preferred to part with the anchor that had completed its mission, cutting off the anchor rope without regret.

The crews of some naves consisted of 100-150 sailors. Such ships could carry up to a thousand passengers. However, there was no need to talk about the comfort of sea travel. A piece of canvas one and a half meters wide, suspended by knots, served as a bunk for two people. It was not allowed to take heavy luggage on board the ship. And yet there was no end to those who wanted to go sailing, although not everyone could pay for the passage.

Kogg Hanseatic

XIII century was marked by the convergence of shipbuilding technology in the North and South of Europe. It all started with the invasion of pirates from Bayonne into the waters of the Mediterranean. The pirates arrived on cogs - single-masted ships with a round hull and high sides. Single-deck 30-meter coggs, equipped with straight stems that had bevels to the keel line, a mounted rudder and a bowsprit, could not help but attract the attention of the southerners.

The forecastle and quarterdeck of these ships served as combat platforms. A number of features of the construction of coggs were subsequently adopted by shipbuilders of Genoa, Venice and Catalonia. For the first time on Mediterranean sailing ships, a rudder attached to the sternpost appears. The tiller, which was used to control the rudder, was passed through a hole in the stern.

Cogg body design

By the middle of the 14th century. The naves increase significantly in size, beginning to claim the role of powerful cargo ships. The hulls of merchant fleet sailing ships are becoming more rounded and spacious.

The benefits of installing a rudder are beginning to be recognized by most northern boatbuilders. To control the rudder with a high stern, typical of northern ships, a lever was placed on the tiller that rotated in a transverse plane - the so-called calderstock. This mouth-gam is by no means with good intentions, and was given the name “wolfish” by its contemporaries.

Karakka of the late 15th century.

The largest cargo sailing ship of the late 14th and early 15th centuries is considered to be the carrack, which is believed to be of Portuguese origin. Its design combines elements of Mediterranean ships and northern cogga. The karakka differed from the kogg in its large size (its displacement reached 2000 tons) and three-masted sailing rig. Straight sails were attached to the main and foremasts, and a triangular lateen sail was attached to the mizzen.

Over time, they began to install a fourth bonaventure mast, as well as topsails, which complemented the sailing equipment of the mainsail and foresail. A bowsprit appeared on the forecastle, under which a blind sail was not slow to settle. The fort platforms lost their defensive battlements and seemed to merge with the body; at the same time, the front platform extended far beyond the bow tip. The sheathing was placed end-to-end with rows of longitudinal boards and transverse fenders. The ship had a high forecastle and at least two decks on the quarterdeck.

English karakka "Mary Rose". 1536

The forecastle is the forward part of the upper deck.

Blind - a straight sail on a blind yard under a bowsprit.

Quarterdeck - aft section of the upper deck.

With the invention of gunpowder, cannons began to be installed on sailing ships, finally blurring the line between military and merchant ships. At first, the guns were placed on the upper deck, and then special holes began to be cut into the sides of the ship - cannon ports. Karakka, for example, was armed with thirty to forty cannons.

Boarding nets came into fashion, which were stretched over the deck before the start of the battle, preventing the enemy from boarding the ship. In addition, during a naval battle, the net protected the crew from spar debris falling on the deck. Having military weapons and devices, the karakka, in fact, remained a cargo ship, surpassing all other European ships in terms of displacement.

One-pound gun of the 13th century. (top left), a bombard on a wheeled carriage (top right) and a large bombard from the 15th century. (bottom)

The cannons, without which it is difficult to imagine the nave of the end of the Middle Ages, did not arise out of nowhere. The first to seriously use firearms were the Aragonese, who used them in the battle of 1200 against the Anjou fleet. Their guns, which only vaguely resembled cannons, were called “thunder tubes” by their contemporaries. The chronicles of 1281 already speak of a bombard, and at the beginning of the 14th century. One-pound guns appeared on Genoese ships.

In appearance, they resembled a narrow pipe, at the end of which there was a charging chamber. It was used as a lock, and was attached to the iron trunk with a wedge. A cap with gunpowder was placed in advance inside the chamber. The barrel was mounted on a long carriage, clamped into a rotating fork. One-pound guns fired incendiary arrows, a legacy from ancient times. The primitive catapult is decisively replaced by the bombard, which was charged with a stone core.

The powder charge in the bombard's chamber was ignited using a ignition cord or a red-hot iron rod. The rod was heated on an iron brazier located right there, not far from the gun, and a cap containing gunpowder was pierced, followed by a deafening explosion. Small bombards with a long barrel fired lead or iron cannonballs. The bodies of these guns were welded from iron sheets, and large forged bombards were fastened with powerful iron hoops for reliability.

Subsequently, bombards, like church bells, preferred to be cast in bronze. The monumentality of the casting and the massive carriage, which was often mounted on two wheels, made the bombard very similar to a real cannon - a weapon that opened a new era of wars at sea and completely changed the scale of naval battles.

Historians date the appearance of the first sailing ships of the Middle Ages to the times of the Crusades. Performing their feats of arms, the “defenders of the Holy Sepulcher” moved around the Mediterranean Sea on sailing naves.

Nave is not the name of a specific type of ship: most likely, all the first sailing ships were called this way, regardless of size and equipment. Unfortunately, there are no descriptions of the naves of the 10th-12th centuries. not preserved. We know almost nothing about these ships.

The first accurate descriptions of these ships date back to the 13th century. It was then that Louis IX, the French king, entered into several contracts for the rental of sailing ships built in Marseille, Genoa and Venice. He was going to use them to carry out the Crusades.
It was from these contracts that it became known that the Neft of those years was a fairly large ship with a displacement of up to 600 tons. The bow and stern of the ship had equally high-cheekbone contours, as well as high multi-tiered superstructures, where crossbowmen were located during the battle. The cabins were located on the deck with ledges extending beyond the stern. There was no rudder on the naves yet; it was replaced by two short and wide steering oars, for which holes were cut out in the stern.

The first naves were single-masted. Subsequently, two masts began to be installed on these ships, on the tops (tops) of which tops were installed - protected platforms for shooters and observers. For huge lateen sails, special composite yards of two halves were made. True, it was not very easy to control the sails. By the way, there were three spare masts on each nave.
Probably because the masts often broke. In addition, there were three boats on the naves and countless anchors - usually up to twenty. In those days, a device for lifting an anchor - a spire - had not yet been invented, and it was simply impossible to lift a heavy anchor, sometimes weighing more than a ton, by hand.
Therefore, sailors preferred to part with the anchor that had completed its mission, cutting off the anchor rope without regret. The nave crew consisted of 100-150 sailors. Such ships could carry up to 1000 passengers, although, of course, there was no need to talk about comfort.

Since the 13th century. shipbuilders in the north and south of Europe began to actively borrow technical solutions from each other when building ships. It all started with the invasion of pirates from Bayonne into the Mediterranean. The pirates arrived on cogs - single-masted ships with a round hull. The design of the coggs could not help but interest the southerners. Soon, a number of features of the construction of these ships were adopted by shipbuilders in Venice, Genoa and Catalonia.

Reconstructed cogg in Rostock (Germany) 2013

By the middle of the 14th century. The naves were significantly enlarged. Their hulls became more and more rounded and spacious, and they were already seriously laying claim to the role of powerful cargo ships. Northern shipbuilders recognized the advantages of the rudder and replaced the traditional steering oar with it. Soon they began to install a third mast on the naves - a mizzen, carrying a triangular lateen sail. This innovation reduced the pressure on the rudder and made the naves more maneuverable.
The shrouds, which previously served only to support the masts, were equipped with ramps - steps. Now they could be used as high-altitude rope ladders, very convenient for setting and cleaning sails.

The naves were colorfully painted and decorated with bright flags and pennants. Carved decorations, sculptures of mermaids and gods were installed on them. The latest of these ships were designed to resemble luxurious floating palaces. Even the sails began to be colored: from scarlet to mourning black. The latter, invisible after sunset, were used during military campaigns. Contemporaries nicknamed them “wolves.”

At the end of the XIV - beginning of the XV centuries. The largest cargo sailing ship was considered to be the karakka. It is believed that this type of vessel, the design of which uses elements of Mediterranean ships and northern coggs, was developed in Portugal.

Karakka. End of the 15th century

The Karakka differed from the Kogg by its larger displacement (up to 2000 tons) and three-masted sailing rig. Straight sails were attached to the main and foremasts, and a triangular lateen sail was attached to the mizzen. Later they began to install the fourth Bonaventure mast. Additional topsail sails supplemented the sailing equipment of the mainsail and foresail. A bowsprit appeared, and on it a blind sail. The fort sites lost their defensive battlements and seemed to merge with the body. At the same time, the front platform extended far beyond the bow tip.

With the advent of gunpowder, cannons began to be installed on sailing ships. They were used to arm both military and merchant ships. At first, the guns were placed on the upper deck, and then special holes began to be cut into the sides of the ship - cannon ports. Boarding nets also appeared, which were stretched over the deck. “They simultaneously prevented the attackers from getting on the deck of the ship and protected the crew from the debris of the mast falling from above.

One pound gun. XIII century

The first to seriously use firearms were the Aragonese, who used them in the battle against the Anjou fleet in 1200. It cannot be said that these were cannons in the full sense of the word. Contemporaries called them “thunder tubes.”

The chronicles of 1281 already speak of a bombard, and at the beginning of the 14th century. One-pound guns appeared on Genoese ships. In appearance, they resembled a narrow pipe, at the end of which there was a charging chamber. A cap with gunpowder was placed in advance inside the chamber. The barrel was mounted on a long carriage, clamped into a rotating fork. Such weapons did not fire cannonballs, but incendiary arrows left over from ancient times. In turn, the bombards were loaded with stone cannonballs. The smaller ones - small bombards with a long barrel - fired iron and lead cannonballs. The bodies of these guns were welded from iron sheets, and large forged bombards were fastened with powerful iron hoops. Subsequently, bombards, like church bells, were cast from bronze. The monumentality of the casting and the massive carriage made the bombard very similar to a real cannon - a weapon that ushered in a new era of wars at sea.

In the Mediterranean Sea, Venice and Byzantium are the successors of the Romans in the development of navigation and shipbuilding. They build merchant ships, and military ships to protect them from pirates. For the latter, Venice takes the Roman liburna as a model and creates a galley, while Byzantium transforms the ancient bireme into a dromon. Both types of vessels are rowing, with an auxiliary sail. In the north, due to difficult sailing conditions, the development of shipbuilding goes along the line of sailing ships, while rowing ships are auxiliary.

Venice was founded in the 5th century by refugees from Italy fleeing the invasion of northern peoples. Based on water, among lagoons, she naturally turned her attention to the sea. The historian Cassiodorus (minister of the Ostrogothic king Theodoric) already in 495 speaks about the success of the Venetians' maritime trade and their ability to control ships, and in 536 Byzantium appeals for the assistance of their fleet against the Goths. Chronicles record the existence of an arsenal (darsen) in Venice as early as the 7th century, but these were open workshops for the construction of ships both for the state and for private individuals.

Wars with the Arabs (Saracens) and the Crusades intensified the construction of ships, and in 1104 a special arsenal for the construction of ships was created, which was significantly expanded in 1310, and then more and more improved.

Byzantine dromons, both military and commercial, existed already in the 4th-5th centuries (before the appearance of galleys). "Images of them and exact sizes have not survived, but from the writings of contemporaries one can form an idea about them. The Byzantine emperor Mauritius, who wrote a treatise on art of war, calls light warships dromons. The larger of them are armed with small ballistae, covered with mats to protect the people of the wicker. These ballistae were used on the move to repel the attack of an enemy ship. The dromons had towers for archers. For battle, the dromons lined up in a line formation front, keeping an interval so as not to break the oars. If there were a large number of them, a second line and even a third were established at the distance of the arrow. Behind were placed transport ships, escorted by several dromons.

Emperor Leo the Philosopher also wrote the treatise “Nahuma-khiya” (the art of war) in the 9th century. He says that dromons are vessels of proportional size, light on the move. To avoid getting contours that slow down the speed, the skin of their sides should not be too thick. To be able to withstand a ramming attack, the skin should not be thin. The dromons had a deck and on each side two rows of oars in height, each row with at least 25 cans for the rowers; only 100 rowers. In addition, on the dromon were: the captain, who stood at the stern during the battle, his two assistants, helmsmen, sailors and soldiers. One of the captain’s assistants was in charge of the anchor, and the other was in charge of the pipe from which the “Greek fire” was thrown out. 1 The warriors stood on the deck and at the openings in the stern, shooting from bows. In hand-to-hand combat, during boarding, they were replenished with rowers of the top row of oars, in whose places the strongest people were appointed.

There were also large dromons, which had 200 and, as an exception, 300 rowers. On large dromons, at the time of the battle, a wooden platform for shooters, protected by a parapet, was raised on cables to half the height of the mast. Smaller, lighter dromons were called Panfils. The approximate length of a 100-oar dromon is 43-45 m.

With the decrease in the maritime power of Byzantium, undermined by wars with the Persians, then with the Turks, as well as internal unrest, Venice rises.

Having defeated the Normans, she spread her influence both in Italy, Dalmatia, and along the shores of Asia Minor. At the beginning of the 12th century, its fleet consisted of more than 200 ships.

Since the development of the Turkish galley fleet and the conquest of Byzantium by the Turks (1453), the dromons have disappeared, and the more mobile galleys remain the main warship of the Mediterranean countries.

In Fig. 43 shows a general view of a light Venetian galley, and Fig. 44 its structural midsection. This galley, about 40 m long, 5.0-5.2 m wide and with a draft of 1.75-1.9 m, was an elongated low-sided vessel with good performance under oars; as an aid to propulsion, she carried slanting (lateen) sails on one or two masts. A distinctive feature of galleys is their long yards, in non-

^ Greek fire is a flammable liquid mixture of sulfur, mountain resin, saltpeter and linseed oil, which was used to produce fire in air and water. Ivobre-ten by the Greek architect Kalinnik in 668 and proposed to the Byzantine Emperor Constantine III. Greek fire played a big role in the battles of that time and was used in various forms: thrown out of pipes or thrown at the enemy in vessels, the contents of which were ignited after some time using a wick. Thanks to the presence of oil, the flame could float on the surface of the water. Protection was provided by covering the sides and deck of the ship with felt soaked in vinegar, since water did not extinguish the fire. During the siege of Constantinople by the Turks, four Genoese ships, thanks to Greek fire, broke into the city through the blockade of 145 ships of the Turkish fleet.

which in cases are almost equal to the length of the galley itself; before the battle the sails were removed. The main mast passed through the deck, reached the keel and was firmly attached to the frame with wooden brackets; the bow mast was attached only to the deck. The latter was made in the form of a vault; under it in the hold there were zshasys, and above along

Rice. 43. General view of a light Venetian galley.

Along the entire center plane there was a low platform for the passage-RR (Fig. 44), the so-called Curonian (corsia). On the sides of the Curonian there were 25 EP cans on each side with 00 footrests for three oarsmen on each can, for a total of 150 oarsmen.

Rice. 44. Structural cross-section of a galley.

The galley's hull, consisting of a keel, frames, outer and inner plating, had a characteristic shape, widening at the deck to allow the use of long oars (up to 15 m) without increasing the width of the galley. The side had a protrusion formed by a row of brackets placed along the length of the galley; the latter were connected by a longitudinal board. Along the edge of this ledge there was a longitudinal beam C (postis), on which oarlocks were installed. At the ends of the protrusion, B pillars were installed to create a bulwark (side skirt). In the stern, a rudder was hung on hinges from the sternpost; Since the 11th century, such a rudder began to be used on all ships.

There were two systems for placing rowers. In one (older), so-called zenzil system, the banks were located obliquely towards the cursor; On each bank sat 3 oarsmen, each operating one oar (Fig. 45). Thanks to this density of rowers' shrinkage (approximately 0.4 m of side length per rower, instead of 1 m with one person on the bank), an increase in the galley's propulsion was achieved without lengthening it. As the size of the galleys increased, the oars became heavier, so that it was difficult for one person to control such an oar. Therefore, from the 14th century, for each can, placed normally to the cursor, there was one oar with 4 rowers, and later with 5 rowers (scalocchio system). In the 17th century, large galleys armed with cannons - galleasses - had 9 and 10 rowers per oar, but did not employ more than 10 people.

Since the Venetians, who took the Roman liburna as a model for their galleys, called their galleys with the zensil system triremes, there is reason to believe that the Romans also had triremes with the same single-row arrangement of oars.

The speed of the galleys under oars reached 7-8 knots. The oars were balanced with lead and had handles, as can be seen in Fig. 45.

The work of the oarsmen was very difficult; it was not for nothing that exile “to the galleys” was considered synonymous with hard labor. The rowers bore the common name shiurma. Komit, the chief of the rowers, was placed in the stern near the captain, from whom he received orders. There were two subcommittees - one in the middle of the Curonian, the other in the bow; both had whips. The committee announced the beginning of the stroke with a whistle, the signal was repeated by the subcommittees, the rowers immediately had to take up the oars, and then simultaneously all 150 rowers began to act. If even one rower was late, he would receive a blow on the back from the next oar, which would cause rowing frustration. Usually the rowers were divided into three watches, but often the work of all rowers continued without a break for 10 or more hours; During this time, bread soaked in wine was placed in their mouths. Shiurma consisted of three types of persons: convicts, slaves (Moors, Turks, etc.) and volunteers (poor people who sold their freedom for the right to live). Katorzh-

Rice. 45. Arrangement of oars on a galley according to the zenzil system.

NIKIs were chained to banks; They were also responsible for repairing the sails. Slaves, sometimes volunteers, were chained only at night. In their free time, they helped the ship's crew in hauling cargo, carpentry and other work; During the battle, volunteers were given weapons and they became fighters. The external difference between these categories of rowers was that convicts had their heads shaved, slaves wore a topknot on their heads, and volunteers had to wear a mustache with a shaved head.

The combat weapons of the galleys were: a ram on the surface (so as not to reduce the speed under sail), throwing machines

Rice. 46. ​​Venetian galley of the 14th century.

(stones, arrows, incendiary vessels) and crossbows (large bows in the form of a gun with a butt); a crossbowman could fire 12 arrows per minute. During the battle, crossbowmen stood along the sides like a solid wall. When boarding, iron nuts with points were thrown onto the deck, or the deck was doused with strong soap to weaken the pressure of enemy soldiers. To protect people from arrows, bags filled with old sails, cables, clothes, etc. were stacked at the bulwarks, and protective skirts (beams) were installed across the ship in the bow and stern, for which tied oars covered with canvas and various soft objects were used. Crossbowmen had leather or iron armor on their chest and back.

The battle formation of the galleys was a front formation (the ships were placed parallel to each other) or a semicircle, which was then broken up into battles of individual ships with mutual support.

In Fig. 46 shows a general view of a galley of the 14th century (the beginning of the appearance of firearms). It retains the same character as before, but the freeboard is slightly increased; in the bow there was a platform for soldiers, in the stern there was a gazebo for the captain.

While maintaining a common type, galleys in different countries bore different names: uxers (in France of the 11th-14th centuries), rambergs (in England), galliots - small high-speed galleys designed to throw Greek fire, frigates - undecked galleys that served as messenger ships. Although the homeland of galleys is the Mediterranean Sea, since the 12th century they have been part of the military fleets of the northern states, only as auxiliary military vessels.

Rice. 47. Swedish galley of the 16th century.

The history of galleys ends in the 18th century; the last galleys were in Sweden and Russia. ^ In Fig. 47 shows a 16th-century Swedish galley; it is built on the model of Venetian galleys - the same hull outlines and windage. The figure shows the Curonian and holes in the bulwark for oars.

Along with galleys (long ships), round ships, or naves (Italian nave, Norman neve) also developed. In the 10th-13th centuries, the word “nave” exclusively designated high-sided sailing ships. These existed during the Roman Empire (Fig. 36) and continued to be built in succession in subsequent years.

By government order of 1749, the galley fleet was abolished, and the composition was transferred to sailing ships.

eras with certain modifications. 1 In Fig. 48 shows a 12th-century Mediterranean nave; it had two masts with slanting sails and elevated superstructures at the bow and stern. But there were also armed naves, since merchant ships could always find themselves under the threat of attack from Saracen (Moorish), Norman and other pirates. Such a nave is shown in Fig. 49. The bow and stern are strongly raised; on the latter there is a platform for shooters, on the mast there is an observation mars. During the Crusades (1096-1270), crusader troops and numerous pilgrims reached Italy and were then transported by sea by the Venetians and Genoese to Palestine. This factor, as well as the revival of trade relations between Europe and the Middle East, led to the construction of large naves that could accommodate 800-1000 people (of course, without ^"^"^^^""^^^C

the convenience we currently have). Venetian and Genoese statutes of the 14th-15th centuries mention naves with three decks, capable of carrying up to 1,500 passengers or 20,000 cantars (about 1,200 tons) of cargo with a crew of 12 people. During the crusade, the French king Louis IX arrived in Palestine on a nave that could accommodate 800 soldiers. Such large naves were the exception; ordinary naves, with a displacement of 200-600 tons, had a waterline length of 20-32 m, a width of 6-12 m and a draft of 2.0-3.7 m. These naves were distinguished by a strongly upturned bow and stern with superstructures on them, one above another, which reduced their speed and worsened maneuverability. Since during stops the naves were blown away by the wind, they had several anchors (for large naves up to 7).

^ in the merchant fleets of the 13th-15th centuries there was a wide variety of ships, the consideration of which is beyond our task. They differed in size, purpose, appearance and windage. So, there were hukors (among the Dutch), marepillans, polyacres, boks (large cargo ships), busses (short steep-sided ships), brigantines, etc.

Faster naves, although not as spacious, were called talions. According to the ratio of the main dimensions, galleons approached galleys, which is why they got their name. Galions had a transom stern, more advanced rigging with straight sails, and were the type of vessels from which further improvements in warships came during the transition from rowing to sailing fleets (Fig. 50). In the XIV-XV centuries, they were among the warships of Spain, England, and France and were armed with cannons.

In the north, rowing galleys, due to difficult sailing conditions, did not have such a predominant importance as in the Mediterranean Sea. Since the 11th century, sailing ships, both commercial and military, have been built almost exclusively there. To conquer England in 1066, the Norman Duke William assembled a fleet of 1000 ships of various sizes; only a few of them were rowing. On these ships, William transported an army of 60,000 soldiers from Normandy (Saint-Valery near Dieppe) to England (according to other sources, no more than 30,000). After landing, he ordered the ships to be burned so that there would be no reason to retreat. The ships were small, with a displacement of no more than 30-50 tons. In Fig. 51 shows one of them; it has a raised bow with a platform for shooters, typical of northern warships of that time.

Having become the king of England, William, in order to provide the country with military vessels, changed the previous system of supplying ships by feudal lords and cities, which led to the fact that at the required moment there was no fleet, and the country was conquered. He and his successors chose five southern ports. ^ The latter were given extensive privileges with the obligation to equip their ports and keep their ships in such a form that at any time they could be armed and turned into military ones. This system was the embryo of the development of the English fleet in the future.

The English king Richard the Lionheart could already assemble a fleet of 160 armed men to participate in the crusade in 1190

"The ports of Hastings, Sandwich, Dover, Romney and Heath (Huie) have long had extensive fishing enterprises in the North Sea, had ships and good sailors.

sailing ships, including 9 large ones, 30 galleys and a large number of transports for transporting stores and provisions. In Fig. 52

Rice. 51. Warship of William the Conqueror.

one of his large ships (battle nave) is shown. It has raised bow and stern superstructures typical of all armed naves of that time, but in the formation of the body it has retained the Norman-

Rice. 52. English warship of the 12th century.

Chinese outlines (increased length-to-width ratio and uniformity of bow and stern in the underwater part).

The Hanseatic armed ships (Fig. 53), which served this trade association of North German cities to protect their sea routes from Scandinavian and Danish pirates, are of a similar nature.

Before the era of great geographical discoveries, Venice and Genoa had predominant importance in navigation and shipbuilding. Having become intermediaries in maritime trade between Europe and the East since the Crusades (goods from India passed through Egyptian ports) and owning large trading capital, they could maintain a state military galley fleet, and at any time could organize military naves, since the latter differed little from trading

While in other countries ships were built largely by handicraft methods, the naval arsenal in Venice, with its slipways for construction and pools for completing ships, achieved significant development in the 14th century. It employed up to 16,000 workers from various workshops - carpenters, blacksmiths, sailmakers, caulkers, riggers, etc., under the guidance of craftsmen and builders.

The Venetians, having captured the island of Crete and some islands of the Archipelago, spread their influence in the eastern part of the Mediterranean Sea; they also conducted maritime trade relations with England and Holland.

The Genoese, taking advantage of the agreement with Byzantium, conducted maritime trade in the Black Sea, establishing Colonies there in Trebizond, Caffa (Feodosia), Gurzuf, Sudak, etc. After the conquest of Byzantium by the Turks, relations between the Genoese and the Black Sea ceased.

Since under the feudal system military ships were not always delivered in the required quantity by feudal lords and townspeople, the State had to rent ships with their crew from other countries. In these cases, the Venetians and Genoese willingly met halfway. Thus, during the war between England and France (1340) in the naval battle of Ecluse (in English, bius), the French fleet consisted of 200 ships, which included Genoese, Norman and Picardy ships in the pay of the King of France. The British had the same number of ships, but with a homogeneous crew and warriors, which helped them defeat the French.