What is a peninsula? Definition and interesting facts. Peninsula Valdez: “A Paradise for Marine Animals The largest peninsula in the world”

The Arabian Peninsula is an irregular trapezoid in outline, the long side of which extends from northwest to southeast. In the northeast, the peninsula is washed by the Gulf of Oman and the Persian Gulf, in the north it is bordered by the Syrian Desert, in the southwest it is washed by the Red Sea, and in the south by the Gulf of Aden and the Arabian Sea. The total area of ​​the peninsula is about 2.6 million square meters. km.

Geological structure and relief

In the geomorphology of the Arabian Peninsula, two characteristic features are noted: firstly, all mountain ranges are located on the outskirts of the peninsula and, secondly, more than 90% of the flow is directed towards the Persian Gulf or the Rub al-Khali depression.

The western part of the peninsula is composed mainly of igneous and metamorphic rocks exposed to the surface, while in the east these rocks are covered with very thick layers of sedimentary deposits ranging in age from Early Paleozoic to modern. Therefore, in the western regions such minerals may be discovered, the origin of which is associated with magmatic processes, and the presence of oil-bearing or coal-bearing areas is unlikely. Nevertheless, certain oil-bearing horizons may be discovered in the section of the Red Sea coast.

The lowland bordering the Red Sea is called Tihama; sometimes a distinction is made between Hijaz, Asir and Yemeni Tihama. On the rear side of Tihama, at various distances from the coast from north to south, bare blocky mountains stretch in an almost continuous chain. In the Jebel al-Shafa range, in the northern Hijaz, the highest peak is Jebel al-Lawz, reaching 2536 m, and its surrounding peaks have heights ranging from 1800 to 2100 m. The peak of Jebel Dhaqa, lying east of the city of Mecca, has a height of 2504 m, and towards the south the heights increase. Mount Jebel Maet (3,701 m), located west of Sana'a, the capital of Yemen, reaches its maximum height. Thanks to its high mountains, and the fact that these mountains lie in the path of the monsoons blowing from the Indian Ocean, Yemen receives more rainfall than any other part of the Arabian Peninsula, which is why it is the most densely populated.

The watershed formed by the mountains of Hejaz, Asir and Yemen is located 80-120 km from the coast; steeply dipping streams cut deep gorges on the western slopes of the mountains, and on the gentler eastern slopes consequential rivers 2 formed a much more extensive drainage system. The framework of the western ranges is composed of granites and metamorphic rocks, and most of these mountains, which continue into southern Yemen, are covered with volcanic rocks.

The mountains that border the southeastern tip of the Arabian Peninsula stretch from Aden to eastern Dhofar. In western Hadhramaut, adjacent to the Gulf of Aden, their average height ranges from 1800 to 2400 m. One peak north of the city of Mukalla reaches a height of 3337 m. Towards the east, the heights decrease, and in Dhofar the mountains do not exceed 900 m. The exception is the peak north of Murbat, whose height is 2652 meters.

The mountains of Hadhramaut and Dhofar are composed mainly of sedimentary deposits, gently inclined to the north towards the Rub al-Khali depression, but the southern slopes of the mountains are uneven and steep. Researchers believe that tectonically these mountains are a large monoclinal block, slightly inclined to the north, towards the depression. Rub al-Khali, and abruptly ending in the south as a result of a fault that has a close connection with the graben that forms the depression of the Gulf of Aden.

Between the eastern continuation of the Dhofar Mountains and the southern spurs of the Oman ranges there is a low-lying plain with a length of about 240 km, the average height of which is about 150 m above sea level.

The mountains of Oman are distinguished by sharp dissection, their maximum height ranges from 2100 to 3000 m. The mountains have steep eastern and western slopes and represent a ridge raised as a result of folding. In their morphology and geological structure, they are similar to the ranges of Iran, but have nothing in common with the mountains of the southwestern and southeastern parts of the Arabian Peninsula.

Description of the crossing through the Arabian Peninsula from the Red Sea to the Persian Gulf

Tihama and the mountains of Hejaz. To the east of the narrow coastal lowland of Tihama, bordering the Red Sea, the highly dissected and rugged mountains of the Hejaz rise sharply. The western ranges, composed mainly of igneous and metamorphic rocks, are very resistant to erosion, which explains their present height. Their initial uplift was due to movements that occurred intermittently over a long geological time along the western zone of ruptures. The western slopes of the Hejaz Mountains represent a giant fault wall, and the opposite slopes were formed as a result of a slight tilt of the broken block in the eastern direction. In the northeastern foothills belt, Paleozoic sandstones, gently dipping to the east, lie on Precambrian basement, and south of Tebuk, early Paleozoic sandstones are covered by extensive basaltic lava flows, locally called "harra". The eastern slopes of the Hejaz mountains gradually merge with the central plateau.

Central plateau of the Arabian Peninsula

To the east of the mountainous region described above lies the vast desert central plateau, which is approximately 500 km wide. Most of the plateau is composed of Precambrian igneous and metamorphic rocks. In its western part there are several large lava sheets of relatively young age. Between Medina and the southwestern edge of the Greater Nefud Desert, the basement contains almost undisturbed massive sandstones dating back to the Cambrian-Ordovician. The eminent researcher Doty gives a remarkable description of this and other areas of northern Najd.

The height of the Central Plateau ranges from 1050 to 1350 m above sea level, but the height of individual depressions drops to 900 m, and individual ridges of hills rise to 1800 m. From an airplane one can find that this plateau is strongly dissected by consequential rivers flowing to the east (currently periodically drying out). These rivers formed a highly branched network. A characteristic feature of the landscape are low, irregularly shaped hills separated by wide wadis (dry riverbeds) filled with alluvial deposits. The area is deserted except for occasional thorny bushes and coarse grass growing in isolated depressions.

Cuesto district

Between the Central Plateau and Dakhna there is an area about 320 km wide, with a monoclinal slope to the east. A distinctive feature of the relief here is the presence of six to eight well-defined ridges, stretching from north to south and representing typical cuestas with steep steep western and gentle eastern slopes. Particularly notable are the Tuvaik ridge, composed of Upper Jurassic limestones with a length of about 800 km, and the Aruma ridge, composed of Upper Cretaceous limestones and having the same extent. Both ridges clearly reflect the general nature of the relief and geological structure of this area. The height of the Tuwaiq ridge is approximately 840 m above sea level and 240 m above the level of the surrounding plains and lower ridges located to the west. The Aruma ridge, rising 540 meters above sea level, stands out less, since it rises only 120 m above the plain adjacent to it from the west. The remaining cuestas, located almost parallel to the two main ones, are not so high and long. Nevertheless, some of them seem quite impressive against the backdrop of the adjacent monotonous plains. The flat areas adjacent to the western slopes of many, but not all, cuestas are "nefudas" (nufudas, or nafudas), that is, vast areas covered with dunes, sand ridges and sand mounds.

The area's prevailing northwesterly winds have a westerly component, causing the nefud sands to slowly move eastward; but here the sands encounter a natural barrier formed by the above-described cuestas and individual mesas and outcrops. Therefore, the sands move slowly but continuously to the south parallel to the general strike of the neighboring cuestas.

Cuesta ridges and flat areas of the cuesta region were formed as a result of differential weathering of dense limestones, less dense sandstones and pliable clayey rocks, which are components of a sedimentary sequence with an overall slight slope. These rocks, listed in order of their predominance in the section, are here well exposed, but eastward towards the Persian Gulf they are covered by younger sediments, lithologically similar and also widely developed. Such sedimentary strata are favorable for the formation of oil and coal, but are not promising for metals.

Dakhna (Little Nefud Desert), directly adjacent to the cuesta ridges of Aruma and Tuwaiq, is one of the most distinctive areas of the eastern part of Saudi Arabia. It stretches from the Great Nefud Desert to the Rub al-Khali Desert for about 1,300 km, its width ranges from 25 to 80 km, and its average height is about 450 meters above sea level.

The pedshas of the northern part of Dakhna are mostly fixed. There is vegetation cover consisting of small shrubs and grass. Dunes and sand mounds, usually characteristic of shifting sands, are rare here. Nevertheless, in the western part of Dakhna, south of the Maakala - Riyadh road, there are dunes, and towards the south their number is increasing. According to available information, predominantly mobile dune sands are developed on the southern outskirts of Dakhna. The sands of Dakhna belong to the medium- and fine-grained sands, and their color, due to the presence of hematite, approaches orange-red, especially in the morning and at dusk.

In winter and early spring, Dakhna is a good pasture for livestock. The Bedouins living here derive the name “Dakhna” from the word “dihi”, that is, “fat”, apparently due to the excellent quality of the local pastures. True, most likely Dakhna means “red” - a name that could come from the characteristic reddish color of the sands. Water is rare in the Dakhna area, and the Bedouins herding camels there are forced to make do with little water for weeks at a time; They feed mainly on dates and camel milk.

Summan Plateau

The Summan plateau, 80 to 240 km wide, is located east of Dakhna. The surface of the plateau is composed of both pebble sediments and bedrock. Near Dakhna it is mainly a flat rocky area, but further to the east the plateau is indented by watercourses, causing the dissected relief. The cuesta ridge of Khufuf-Sarar, bordering the plateau from the east, forms a very uneven hill and consists of individual outlier hills and extensive mesas, jutting deeply into the coastal lowlands. The height of the Summan plateau near this ridge is approximately 240 m, and the height of its western edge, adjacent to Dakhna, is about 400 m, due to which a slope to the east is formed from 1/2 to 3/4 meters per 1 km. The surface of the plateau is generally monotonous and deserted. However, after rare but heavy rains, quite dense grass cover and flowers appear here.

From the northeast, the northern part of the Summan plateau is adjoined by “dibdiba” - pebble plains stretching for 340 km from northwest to southeast and having a width of over 160 km. The word "dibdiba" is believed to come from an Arabic root and refers to the sound produced when camels' hooves hit pebbles and stones. Dibdiba is a slightly undulating plain with fairly extensive flat areas. The vegetation here is sparse and is found mainly only in depressions where water accumulates during rainy periods. The surface of this plain is very convenient for fast driving, and medium-sized aircraft can land here almost anywhere.

Gulf Coast

This area includes a strip of the western coast of the Persian Gulf, stretching from Kuwait in the north to the Qatar Peninsula in the south. Large oil fields discovered here in recent years are making this area one of the most significant oil production centers in the Middle East. In the coastal strip, located in the zone of gentle folding between the monocline of the Arabian block and the intensely dislocated structures of the mountains of Iran and Oman, seven oil fields have already been discovered to date, and other uplifts that are promising for oil are in line for detailed geological research and exploratory drilling. Other vast flat areas completely covered with sand and pebbles, where drilling work has so far been carried out on a limited scale, also deserve the attention of researchers.

Most of the coastal area is composed of modern sands and Miocene sediments. In Dhahran and in the northern part of the Abqaiq uplift, Eocene limestones emerge from under the cover of Miocene rocks to the surface over large areas. Outcrops of Eocene limestone, although not so significant, are also found in other places in the coastal region. Here these rocks usually occur at a depth not exceeding 150 meters. With the exception of the Dammam dome, the buried uplifts are very poorly recognized on the surface. However, through geophysical surveying and structural drilling it has been established that the entire coastal region is more or less folded and that the Cretaceous layers are folded much more strongly than the exposed or shallow Eocene layers. Nevertheless, the angles of incidence here, as a rule, do not exceed 7° even at depth. How far to the west this belt of folding development extends is unknown.

Although the eastern coastal zone of Saudi Arabia is generally a deserted, monotonous area, there are artesian wells that provide water to oases of date palms, the most significant of which are Hofuf and Al Qatif. The presence of artesian waters in the coastal zone is mainly due to the general gentle eastward slope of the strata between east-central Saudi Arabia and the Persian Gulf. Rainwater, penetrating into the rocks in the higher regions of interior Arabia, gradually seeps deeper and then flows eastward through porous layers enclosed between impermeable strata. If an aquifer is tapped with a borehole or well, the water rises to the surface to form an artesian well, a common occurrence in the Gulf region.

The area south of Kuwait and approximately to Jubail (27° N) is predominantly low undulating sandy ridges, sometimes covered with quite dense vegetation, consisting of small groups of shrubs and coarse creeping grass. The Arabs call this area "dikaka". The sands, fixed by the root system of grasses and shrubs, are mostly motionless here. Sand hills and small ridges of sand, formed by the wind and fixed by vegetation, are a significant obstacle to driving, but a good road can be laid here by smoothing out the bumps with a road roller or scraper.

The western part of the southern outskirts of the “dikaka” region abuts the steep rise of Kidam-Sarar, facing east. However, further to the north this uplift breaks up into a series of isolated mesa hills and outcrops. West of Kuwait and the Neutral Zone, the coastal region becomes shingle plains (dibdiba).

The sand dunes begin at Jubail, and towards the south the dune belt widens, merging with the well-known dune terrain of Jafurah, which becomes the Rub al-Khali desert. The height of the dunes in this area ranges from 20 to 45 m, and the width exceeds 350 m.

On the coast of Salva Bay rises the steep rise of Okair-Salva, facing east, but, turning west at Okaira, it disappears under the sands of Jafur. The sands of Jafur currently cover flat pebble plains, which reappear further to the west between these sands and another steep rise, 370 km long and facing steeply to the east. This uplift extends almost in a straight line, starting approximately 50 km north of Hofuf and ending 65 km south of Jabrin.

The general direction of the coastline between the base of the Qatar Peninsula and Kuwait is fairly straight, but due to the lowlands covered with coastal salt marshes, sandbars and shoals, the coastline is finely indented. From the coast inland, the height of the area increases by about one meter with every kilometer.

The lowlands covered with salt marshes, or "sebka", stretch along almost the entire Arabian coast of the Persian Gulf. They were formed as a result of the filling of small bays or other bodies of water with sand, apparently brought from the desert, with the simultaneous evaporation of sea water. At relatively shallow depths, you can always find water in the caves. Due to evaporation, a certain amount of salt was deposited in them, and salt and sand form a heterogeneous mixture, which dries and gives a crust several centimeters thick. The surface of such salt marshes is usually located at a level to which moisture rises above the normal level of groundwater. Below this level, sand and dust remain damp and motionless, while above it they dry out and are blown away. The flat surface of these salt marshes is usually quite dense, and good roads can be built over them, requiring little maintenance.

(Spanish: Península Valdes) - a peninsula on the Atlantic coast with an area of ​​about 3.7 thousand km²; connected to the mainland by an isthmus Carlos Ameghino(Spanish: Istmo Carlos Ameghino). From the north its coast is washed by San Jose Bay(Spanish: San Jose Bay), from the south - Golfo Nuevo (Spanish: Golfo Nuevo). The territory of the peninsula is part of the Argentine province (Spanish: Provincia de Chubut), which, in turn, is located in the center of the region (Spanish: Patagonia). Most of the peninsula is an uninhabited area. The 400-kilometer coastline is very picturesque, it includes a series of bays and lagoons, bizarre cliffs, sandy and rocky beaches, and huge fantastic cliffs. And the coastal waters are rich in magnificent coral reefs.

The nearest large city from the peninsula is (Spanish: Puerto Madryn).

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Climate

The climate on the peninsula is transitional between the temperate climate of the central part of the country (with plenty of rainfall in the hot months) and the cold climate with winter rains, characteristic of Patagonia. Summers in Valdez are short and hot, and winters are long and mild.

Open air zoo

Many call the Valdez Peninsula a miracle of nature, because this place is home to an incredible diversity of marine fauna. The peninsula became famous as a place of concentration of unique and diverse marine fauna, for which in 1999 this amazing corner of nature was included in the UNESCO World Heritage List. Crowds of tourists flock to this island, connected to the continent by a narrow strip of land, every year to watch huge whales, funny penguins and other animals.

The coast of the peninsula is of utmost importance for the conservation of rare species of marine animals. Numerous colonies of marine mammals live here, such as southern elephant seals (Latin Mirounga leonina), eared seals (Latin Otariidae), killer whales (Latin Orcinus orca), sea lions (Latin Otariinae), fur seals (Latin Callorhinus ursinus ).

In the warm and calm waters of the Gulf of Golfo Nuevo, which separates the peninsula from mainland Patagonia, rare southern right whales (lat. Eubalaena australis) are found, and other species of whales swim from May to December to spend the mating season and breed.

On land, there are rhea ostriches (Rheidae), guanaco llamas (Lama guanicoe), armadillos (Cingulata) and maras (Dolichotinae), also known as Patagonian hares or Patagonian pigs. From September to March, penguins (lat. Spheniscidae) live on Valdez - during this period, these amazing flightless seabirds hatch their chicks. The species diversity of seabirds living here is especially huge (at least 180 species), mainly gulls, cormorants and pink flamingos.

On Valdez there is a small Puerto Pyramides village(Spanish: Puerto Piramides) Despite its population of about 250 inhabitants, the village is visited annually by more than 8 thousand tourists: sea excursions depart from here to watch whales (from September to November) and sea wolves (from December to March).

Place Punta Tombo(Spanish: Punta Tombo), located on the Atlantic coast, is a narrow, rocky strip of land favored by Magellanic penguins (Latin: Spheniscus magellanicus). About 2 million of these seabirds constantly come here. They live here in the warm season, from September to April: they mate, lay and hatch eggs. In 1979, Punta Tombo received the status of a provincial reserve.

The Paradise Bay of Golfo Nuevo even attracts such very rare animals as Commerson's dolphins or Motley dolphins (lat. Cephalorhynchus commersonii), which are famous for their unusual coloring - the body is snow-white, and the head, tail and fins are black.

In places Punta Norte(Spanish: Punta Norte) and Punta Delgada(Spanish: Punta Delgada) visitors watch colonies of birds and some marine animals.

Along the entire coast in Caleta Valdez(Spanish: Caleta Valdes) - a narrow cape separating the open sea from the lagoon - you can see elephant seals, whose weight sometimes reaches 3 tons.

How to get there

To get to the peninsula, you need to fly to Puerto Madryn, which is located 70 km from Valdez.

You can move around the peninsula only by car or on a tour bus. Therefore, in Puerto Madryn you need to purchase a tour or rent a car.

Curious facts

A peninsula is not just a piece of land that is adjacent to the mainland or some island, as is written in most encyclopedias. This is an excellent place to relax away from civilization, with a large number of beautiful places where you can relax both physically and mentally. There are a large number of different peninsulas on our planet; I would like to highlight the largest ones in area.

Its total area is approximately 2,730 thousand square kilometers. It is difficult to calculate the exact area of ​​the peninsula, since part of the territory belongs to the mainland to which it is adjacent. It is impossible to say exactly where the territory of the peninsula begins, and where the mainland is, so it is almost impossible to calculate the exact area. But in this case, whatever one may say, the Arabian Peninsula occupies a large territory on which a dozen of the most ordinary European countries can be accommodated. But most of the Arabian Peninsula belongs to Saudi Arabia, and some small countries are located on its territory, these are Qatar, Kuwait, Yemen, Bahrain and the United Emirates. Accordingly, the peninsula is washed by the Arabian Sea and partly by the Red Sea. Also several gulfs: Aden, Oman and Persian Gulf. The sun shines here 365 days a year; in the middle of the day there is abnormal heat, making it almost impossible to be outside. It may not be the most picturesque peninsula, but it does have a large number of oil and gas fields.

In terms of its approximate area, this peninsula is just a little smaller than the Arabian Peninsula, but in terms of climate they are completely opposite. West Antarctica is rightfully considered the coldest peninsula. The main territory of Antarctica is covered with ice, which does not melt throughout the year. The sun appears quite rarely in this part of the world, as do humans. Only scientific expeditions are sent to West Antarctica; of course, some of the landscapes here are simply breathtaking, but the place is not intended for tourist tours.

After the cold Antarctica, we will return to Asia to the warmer Indochina Peninsula. By the name you can already guess where exactly this peninsula is located, which occupies a little more than two million square kilometers (2088 thousand kilometers). The peninsula is washed by the Andaman and South China Seas. Also, a large number of rivers flow through the territory of the Indochina Peninsula. The climate is quite humid, but due to this the area is very picturesque; it is on this peninsula that such famous resorts as Thailand, Cambodia, Laos and Vietnam are located.

Most reference books and encyclopedias indicate that the area of ​​Hindustan is two million square kilometers. The territorial location is again in Asia, it is on this peninsula that India is powerfully located, as well as two other states of Bangladesh and Pakistan. There is no such humid climate as in Indochina, there is only one exit to the Indian Ocean. Despite the large territory of Hindustan, it is washed by only one Bay of Bengal. Accordingly, the climate here is dry and hot.

And finally, from Asia we move to North America to the shores of the largest peninsula in America - Labrador. In eastern Canada, the Lambrador Peninsula stretches over almost one and a half million square kilometers. A very picturesque peninsula, which people come to see and travel from different parts of the world. The following rivers flow here: Churchill, La Grande, Koksoak, George, Fay, Arno, and there are also a large number of lakes on the peninsula. Due to the abundance of different vegetation, the peninsula is home to many interesting animals, such as lynx, muskrat and various types of fox.

In terms of area, it is significantly inferior to all previous peninsulas, only 800 thousand square kilometers. But it is considered the largest peninsula located in the European part, namely in the North-West. It contains countries such as Norway and Sweden, and Finland occupies a small piece of the peninsula. The peninsula is quite picturesque; here is the famous rock called Troll's Tongue.

Its territory is just a little smaller than the previous peninsula by 50 thousand kilometers. But, despite its small area, it is considered the largest peninsula in Africa, just like the Scandinavian Peninsula in Europe. Due to its bizarre shape on the map, Somalia is nicknamed the Horn of Africa. A large number of reptiles and various rare species of animals live here. Due to frequent droughts, a large number of local species have already become extinct, and some are on the verge of extinction.

And we are transported back to Europe, here the Iberian Peninsula stretches over 582 thousand square kilometers. It is also called the Iberian Peninsula. Most of it is occupied by Spain and quite a bit by Portugal. Also, countries such as France and Great Britain pass through this peninsula quite a bit, but not so much that most Spaniards believe that the island belongs to them.

Proudly occupies third place in Europe, and penultimate in the general list with a total area of ​​505 thousand square kilometers. The Balkan Peninsula, one might say, was torn apart by the central European states. It managed to accommodate most tourist countries such as: Bulgaria, Turkey, Greece, Montenegro, Italy. And even though this peninsula took the penultimate line in the TOP 10, it would have taken first place as the most visited and tourist peninsula.

The list is closed again by a peninsula from Asia, which has an area of ​​approximately 400 thousand square kilometers. This island is washed by the largest number of seas: the Black, Marmara, Mediterranean and Aegean Seas. Absolutely the entire territory of the peninsula belongs to Turkey. In the evening, you can see beautiful seascapes from any side of the peninsula.

Architecture of the countries of the Iberian Peninsula

At the end of the 15th and beginning of the 16th centuries. the influence of the Italian Renaissance became felt in other countries.

The Plateresque style, which spread in the 16th century. in Spain, is a fusion of decorative elements of late Gothic with Renaissance motifs. Ornament could cover the entire façade of a building, as in the Church of San Gregorio in Valladolid, or only its individual parts, as in the Santa Cruz Hospital in Toledo (architect Enrique de Egas).

By the middle of the 16th century. the passion for decoration gives way to the more austere academic style of the palace of Charles V in Granada (1526–1533). Here Pedro Machuca used order elements to create a clear and concise architectural composition.

It is difficult to imagine how the Manueline architectural style could be combined with the ideology of the Gothic era. The origins of Manueline should be sought precisely in the traditions of late Gothic. In terms of content, or more precisely, in terms of the visual program, this style is fully consistent with its era, when, having pushed aside the medieval tradition, the tasks of dynastic propaganda and self-affirmation of the young colonial power came to the fore.

As a general definition of the time, the term “Manueline” is quite appropriate, since Portugal reached its heyday both politically and architecturally during the reign of Manuel 1 the Fortunate (1495 – 1521). But as a name for a style, this term is no longer so successful. Under the code name "Manueline" lies a bizarre mixture. late Gothic elements of the most diverse origins, Renaissance forms and an original program of political symbolism.

In Portugal, the Moorish heritage did not play as significant a role as in Spain. Two buildings from the late 15th century became symbols of Portugal's radical transformation from late medieval civilization to the cosmopolitan culture of the Age of Discovery.

The architecture of the Franciscan church in Évora, founded by John II (1481 – 1495), already anticipates the spatial forms characteristic of the 16th century. The wide central nave, flanked by side chapels, is covered with a continuous row of barrel vaults with pointed arches. This process of visual unification of the interior space of the building was completed by the Italian architect Vignola when working on the Church of the Gesù in Rome, which then served as a model for many Baroque temple interiors.

The search for new architectural forms is also indicated by other typical signs of Manueline: wide porticoes, portals decorated with twisted columns, and program emblems (pelican Joao 2, armillary sphere Manuela 1). In the church of the Igreja do Jesus monastery in Setubal, the motif of twisted columns is carried into the interior. Construction of this hall temple, divided into three naves of equal height, began in 1491. Six twisted columns, stylized as ship ropes, support the rib vault; the mortuary chapel (capela-mor) is decorated with a complex star vault. The design is attributed to a mason named Diogo Boitac (or Butaca; c. 1460 – 1528), who was probably from France. He later set the standard for the official Manueline style in the monasteries of Belem and Batalha.

The columns of the Madalena Church in Olivensa are even more elegant and refined than those in Setúbal. Another remarkable feature of the church at Olivensa is the magnificent curved arch leading into the presbytery. The Jeronimite Monastery of Belém (Bethlehem), located near the mouth of the Tagus River outside the walls of Lisbon, is a true masterpiece of the reign of Manuel I, both architecturally and ideologically.

It was during this period, at the turn of the Middle Ages and the Modern Age, that thanks to the geographical discoveries of its navigators, Portugal became a world power, extremely influential both in politics and in trade. Completed in general terms towards the end of the first quarter of the 16th century, the monastery at Belém is a magnificent work of art, combining Gothic structures with Plateresque decoration and dynastic symbolism, and has a distinctly national character.

The monastery, founded by order of the king in 1496, was originally planned as a tomb for the monarchs of the Aviz dynasty and a cult center for sailors who set off from here to distant lands. But construction began only in 1501 and the new monastery complex was handed over to the monks of the Hieronymite order.

This complex was erected on the site of an old Carthusian monastery founded by Henry the Navigator (it belonged to the Knights of the Order of Christ, but for some time now ceased to meet their practical needs and ideological interests). Together with the nearby Torri di Belem lighthouse, the Jeronimite monastery became the official maritime gateway to the capital of the vast colonial empire. The first architect in Belém was Diogo Boitac, who had already glorified his name with the construction of the Monastery do Jesus in Setúbal.

Boitak planned to create a much larger complex here, including four cloisters. Under his leadership, a site was marked out for the construction of the central and side naves of a large hall church with a high choir clearly separated from the naves and a short transept that almost did not protrude beyond the outer walls. Boitak managed to rebuild two (according to other sources - five) grasses, but the supporting structures and the vault, unique in its technical merits, covering the entire interior, were created after 1517 by Joao de Castiglio (c. 1475 - 1552), an architect and sculptor of Spanish origin , who participated in the execution of all major orders of King Manuel.

The complex reticulated vault of the central nave rests on six octagonal columns 25 m high and is completely covered with Renaissance ornamentation. The interior design amazes with its engineering and aesthetic perfection; She managed to survive even the great earthquake of 1755 without damage. The exterior decoration is notable for its lavishly decorated portals with a complex iconographic program. But the original mortuary chapel - the tomb of Manuel and his descendants - was, unfortunately, destroyed in 1563. It was rebuilt in the Mannerist style by Diogo di Torralva (c. 1500-1566), and finally completed by Jean of Rouen in 1572. Its design unconditionally testifies to the authors' familiarity with the architecture of the Spanish Escorial. The plan for the monastery cloister also appears to have been developed by Boitak, but it was already di Castiglio who brought it to life. This cloister marked the high point of Manueline architecture at the dawn of the Renaissance. The square courtyard is framed by a two-tier gallery.

In each wing of the gallery there are six herbaceous vaults covered with mesh vaults, four of which are equipped with wide and deep arches; the arches are separated from each other by massive buttresses. The corner traves are connected diagonally by wide arches, revealing the lavishly decorated corner supports for viewing. If the interior is dominated by late Gothic forms, then on the sides of the building facing the inside of the cloister, Plateresque motifs, probably introduced at the initiative of di Castiglio, come to the fore.

Abundant decor covering all architectural planes and graceful columns separating the paired openwork arches give the entire massive structure a spirit of filigree lightness. A series of uniform semicircular arches and a pronounced emphasis on horizontal lines already bring this cloister closer to Renaissance architecture. Traces of Spanish influence can also be discerned. The cloister was intended to become not only a place for pious reflection, but also an important instrument of dynastic propaganda. As in the interior of the church, late Gothic forms are combined with Renaissance ornamental motifs and emblems (crosses of the Knights of Christ, armillary spheres, coats of arms).

The aesthetic charm of this ensemble is irresistible, despite the fact that the iconographic symbolism cannot yet be fully deciphered. It was necessary to supplement the complex in Belem with new buildings not so much for the convenience of the inhabitants of the monastery, but in the name of satisfying the ideological demands of a prosperous colonial power. Attempts to unite Portugal with Spain were renewed: Manuel intended to marry his son John to Eleanor of Austria, sister of the late Emperor Charles 5 (Charles 1 of Spain).

In 1517, it was decided to move the tomb of the Avis dynasty from the monastery of Santa Maria da Vitoria in Batalha to Belém. At first, this plan had to be abandoned due to the fierce resistance of the monks. But in the end, the remains of Manuel and his family members found their final resting place in Belem - in the choir and transept of the monastery church. The above-mentioned Torri di Belem lighthouse tower was erected in 1515 - 1521 in the middle of the Tagus, but subsequently the river deviated from the old channel, and the tower ended up on the shore.

This magnificent structure was built under the leadership of the military architect Francisco de Arruda. The tower's plan reflected the latest advances in defense technology, but overall the structure had more symbolic than strategic significance. While the outpost of the Portuguese capital was being built in Belém, construction work at the royal monastery in Batalha was also in full swing. At the turn of the 14th – 15th centuries they were led by Matvish Fernandes. It was he who was entrusted with continuing work on Capelash Imperfeitas, the tomb of Duarte 1. By 1509, the main portal was ready.

Thanks to the unique stone work, this portal has become one of the most beautiful works of art of that era. The arches framing the doorway, in accordance with late Gothic principles, are “split” into several layers and richly decorated in the style of “flaming” Gothic. Floral, ornamental and heraldic motifs are woven into exquisite lace. In principle, the decor of this portal could be interpreted as a development of late Gothic trends in the spirit of Spanish (Palacio del Infantado or San Juan de los Reyes), Flemish and Burgundian examples. However, there is an important detail that distinguishes this portal from the mentioned models. On the door slopes, among plant and animal motifs, the motto of Duarte 1 is repeated: “I will be faithful until the end of my days.” In addition, the armillary spheres of Manuel 1 and the insignia of the Knights of Christ are again found here.

In 1516, construction work at Capelas Imperfeitas was stopped. This is explained in different ways. Some argue that Manuel concentrated all his efforts on the Jeronimite monastery in Belem, which was to become a royal tomb. Others say that just at this moment Matvish Fernandes died, and other master masons, almost all military architects, were busy building defensive structures on the African coast. But even after the construction work in Batalha was headed by João de Castiglio in 1528, only a Renaissance-style loggia was added to the chapel. And as a result, Duarte’s tomb remained unfinished.

The next most important work of Portuguese architecture was the monastery of the Knights of Christ in Tomar. At the beginning of the 16th century, a new wing was added to the fortress-like central Templar church, which dates from the second half of the 12th century. The work was supervised by Joao de Castiglio and Diogo di Arruda. The annex was to house the main altar and the chapter hall. As for the two-tiered interior of this building, covered with an ordinary mesh vault, it is interesting not so much for its architectural design as for its decor. The subtle combination of skillfully crafted decorative motifs with an ideological program is an even more successful achievement of the Manueline style than those we observed in Batalha and Belem.

The lavish decoration of the exterior parts of the building, carried out under the direction of João de Castiglio, contrasts with the sparse but extremely expressive decoration of the interior. On the portal, in the frame of the windows, on the massive stepped buttresses and on the frieze, the entire repertoire of Manueline decorative forms is presented, which in itself can be called a political program. Coats of arms and royal emblems, navigational instruments, ship ropes, marine plants and animals that “inhabit” this decorative world are combined in a bizarre composition under the shadow of the cross of the Knights of Christ, thereby acquiring complex Christian symbolism.

As on the southern portal of the Jeronimite monastery in Belem, the main entrance here is framed by a late Gothic openwork arch, which rises from the top step of the staircase to the very frieze of the facade and includes a complex, multi-level pictorial program. If the prophets, saints and the Virgin Mary are traditional religious figures, then the armillary spheres above the archivolt symbolize the science of navigation, emphasizing the highest status that navigation was awarded under Manuel I.

Of course, sea expeditions were also carried out in the name of Christ: they were perceived as missionary campaigns aimed at saving the pagans. In addition, ideas for a new crusade to liberate the Holy Land from the “infidels” were discussed. And as a result, in Tomar, as in other religious buildings of the early 16th century, secular elements came to the fore.

The most striking example of compositions of this kind is the outer frame of the window of the chapter hall, the design of which is attributed to Diogo di Arruda or Joao de Castiglio. Here the full power of creative imagination that distinguished the Manueline era was clearly demonstrated. On top of the stonework, intricately intertwined seaweed, corals, shells and ropes were skillfully carved from stone; the entire scene is supported by a half-length figure (of the artist?), and the cross of the Knights of Christ and the armillary sphere - symbols of the two pillars on which the Portuguese dynasty rested - crown and flank it. Fantastic, naturalistic and ornamental motifs, combined in the decor of the Church of the Knights of Christ in Tomar, perfectly characterize the art of that era, the transition from the Middle Ages to the Modern Age, and vividly embody in visual images the ideas of the era of the Great Geographical Discoveries.

It becomes obvious that the reign of Manuel 1, both artistically and politically, was indeed an era of fundamental change. Stylistically, late Gothic still dominates, but the emblem of the Avis dynasty gives it an undeniable stamp of modernity.

Bibliography

To prepare this work, materials from the site http://ar-kak.nm.ru/ were used