Romania economy. Romania - economy, politics, GDP, population. Romania - tourism

Romania is considered an agrarian-industrial country, which is distinguished (compared to other members of the European community) by a lower level of economy. However, compared to many countries of the former socialist camp, Romania has come quite far from its poor economic past under the Ceausescu rule.

At the moment, the Romanian economy is considered the 11th country in terms of gross domestic product per capita in the EU countries, while Romania's GDP level does not reach half the European average and hovers at around 46%.

But even such indicators indicate a Romanian breakthrough, if we remember what a poor power this country was at the end of the socialist era in 1989. In the seventies of the last century, Romania significantly exhausted oil reserves on its territory and began to borrow money from Western powers. Oil in Romania was previously the main source of income, so the external debt grew rapidly, and in the early 80s of the twentieth century Ceausescu ordered to stop borrowing and begin to repay debts at any cost.

The country plunged into austerity mode, there was almost no electricity, there was a food crisis, even food cards appeared, while the personal bins of the ruler himself only increased and swelled. All this led not only to the outflow of Hungarians and Germans who lived on the territory of Romania in Transylvania, but also to a socio-political explosion, which ended with the 1989 revolution. By the way, for every German who traveled abroad, Ceausescu demanded 5 thousand francs from Germany, many compared this to the slave trade. Ceausescu paid off a huge foreign debt, but the people could no longer live beyond the poverty line. Although the revolution that took place was called the Velvet Revolution, 1040 people died during the days of the coup, and the dictator himself and his wife were executed.

So, Romania began to build a new power, while the construction was and is not always easy; according to experts, up to a quarter of the population of Romania is still on the verge of a poverty-stricken existence, but welfare is gradually improving, despite the general economic crisis in the world. At the same time, the standard of living of Romanians varies, depending on their belonging to different regions. The highest level of GDP is observed in Bucharest, which is understandable, since the largest amount of Romanian money circulates in the capital.

Industry, Romanian enterprises, banks

Romanian industry is closely linked to the oil and gas industries. Gasoline in Romania is quite affordable in price when compared with neighboring countries that do not have oil, and the cost of a liter does not exceed fifty cents. Natural gas deposits are located at the foot of the Carpathians, as well as on the Transylvanian plateau. Bauxite, coal, and manganese ore are mined in Romania.

The processing industry is closely connected with the mining industry, as oil refineries are located in the cities of Brasov, Ploiesti and others, and shipbuilding plants are located near the Danube Delta. The main ports of Romania (Sulina, Constanta) are also located on the Danube and the Black Sea.

Most of the gross domestic product comes from the service sector, but the business sector (Romanian banks) accounts for about 20.5% of GDP. The tourism industry continues to develop, with hotels, restaurants, and transport accounting for about 18% of GDP. But this figure is not final and is constantly changing upward. Other areas, including enterprises closely related to folk crafts, occupy about 21.7%. Romania's exports include products from the textile industry, mechanical engineering, and metallurgy products.

The monetary unit of Romania, the leu, continues to remain stable and is largely supported by the European community. The currency of Romania is quite an interesting banknote, made using a special technology, with a high degree of protection, which allows it not to wrinkle, practically not torn and to remain in its original form for a long time. It was changed to its modern form in 2005 as a result of a reform that made it possible to denominate the country's inflated monetary unit by 10 thousand times.

The Dacia car is famous in Romania; the automobile production of the same name has been part of the Renault company since 1998. In 2005, the model range was updated and Dacia (Dacia) cars began to be in high demand in Romania. Many people like these modern sedans at a fairly affordable price.

The country has a high unemployment rate - 47%, which indicates insufficient use of internal reserves for the development of the country's economy.

Agriculture in Romania

70% of the arable land is occupied by wheat and corn, which are the main cereal crops of the country. Romanians also plant potatoes, sunflowers, and sugar beets everywhere. Transylvania and the Carpathians are famous for their luscious vineyards, and orchards are generously spread at the foot of the Carpathians. Pears, apple trees, and delicious plums grow to the delight of local residents. Cattle breeding is popular in Romania, in particular sheep breeding is more developed in the southeast, and pig raising is more developed in the south of Romania.

Romania continues to maintain a clear balance, remaining a country where industry and agriculture coexist well. This allows you to provide yourself with good and inexpensive food, as well as enjoy the benefits of industrial enterprises. Membership in the European Union also provides many bonuses that the country uses to its advantage.

Romania

The report on geography was compiled by Nikolaev A.Yu, 10th grade school. №653

St. Petersburg 2003

Introduction

ROMANIA (Romania), a country in southern Europe. Administrative division: 40 counties (districts); Bucharest, the capital of Romania, was separated into an independent administrative-territorial unit. The head of state is the president. The legislative body is a bicameral parliament (Senate and Council of Deputies). The monetary unit is leu.

Geographical position.

The Republic of Romania is located in the southeast of Central Europe, in the Lower Danube basin. Its borders were determined by the peace treaty of 1947, their total length is 3190.3 km.

In the east, Romania is washed by the Black Sea, the length of its sea borders is 244 km. In the north and northeast it borders with Moldova (1325.9 km), in the northwest with Hungary (444.8 km), in the southeast with Yugoslavia (544.3 km), in the south with Bulgaria ( 631.3 km). The territory of Romania is 237.5 thousand square meters. km. About 30% of the total area is mountains, 37% is hills and plateaus, 33% is plains.

Relief, minerals.

In the central and northern parts - the Eastern and Southern Carpathians (the highest point of Moldoveanu, 2544 m) and the Transylvanian plateau, in the west - the Western Romanian Mountains, in the south - the Lower Danube Plain, in the southeast - the Dobrudzha plateau, east of the river Siret – Moldavian upland. In the west, the borders of Romania include the eastern edge of the Middle Danube Plain. On the territory of the country there is about half of the large European mountain system of the Carpathians, which occupy over 2/5 of the country's area. This is one of the main factors causing regional climatic and soil-vegetation differences in most of its territory. More than 30% of the territory of Romania lies at an altitude of over 800 m above sea level. The Carpathian foothills and plateaus, located along the outer and inner stolons of the Carpathian mountain arc at an altitude of 200 to 800 m, occupy 37%, and plains and lowlands (below 200 m) - 33% of the territory of Romania.

Rock salt deposits could satisfy the needs of all of Europe for many years. Large reserves of natural gas, oil and rock salt are found in Romania.

Coal occurs in many places in the country, but their total reserves are small (about 6-7 billion tons) and are represented mainly by lignites. There are few coals.

There are also numerous deposits of ore minerals; and although there are few deposits with large reserves, in total they create the necessary basis for fully satisfying the country's needs for lead, zinc, manganese, aluminum and are capable of meeting a significant part of the need for copper.

There are significant reserves of precious (gold, silver) and rare metals. Romania is insufficiently supplied with iron ore and high-quality coking coal, necessary for the rapidly developing iron and steel industry. In the post-war period, new large deposits of gas, oil, and metal ores were discovered, but the bowels of the country still contain many undiscovered riches.

Climate.

The climate is temperate, continental. On the plains the average January temperatures are from 0 to -5 °C, in the mountains up to -10 °C; July from 20 to 23 °C; precipitation 300-700 mm per year, in the mountains temperatures in January - from 0 to -10 ° C (in some places lower), July - from 8 to 16, precipitation 800 - 1500 mm. The mountains are covered with snow for 3–4 months in winter.

Inland waters

The main river is the Danube with its tributaries Jiu, Olt, Siret, Prut. In the west is the large Mures River (a tributary of the Tisza). From its source to its confluence with the waters of the Black Sea, the Danube travels a distance of 2860 km, of which 1075 km is through the territory of Romania. The Danube Delta, a fabulous land of canals, lakes and hills, reeds and willows, is located on an area of ​​5640 square meters. km, of which 4340 sq. km belong to Romania.

Flora and fauna

Most of the plains are plowed, the natural vegetation on the plains and foothills is steppe and forest-steppe (preserved only in some areas); Coniferous and broad-leaved forests (mainly in the mountains) occupy 27% of the territory. The largest national park is Retezat. The marshy areas of the Danube Delta, far from the sea, are home to a variety of birds. At the mouth of the Danube there are over 90 species of fish, including the famous sturgeon: stellate sturgeon, beluga and sturgeon. In the Danube branches of St. George, Kiliya and Sulin, and especially in canals, rivers and deep lakes, amateur fishermen catch pike and pike perch, carp and catfish, crucian carp, perch and even eel. For ornithologists, the Danube Delta is a treasure: this bird paradise is home to about 300 species, most of them migratory, of which about 75 species are from outside Europe. The golden eagle, summer swan, and great cormorant come from Asia, and the common and Dalmatian pelicans come from the African continent. During the flight from the Arctic zone, ruby-throats, large and small white-fronted geese or black-headed ducks stop here. Some species are endangered and protected by law - red and white wild ducks, white-tailed eagle, sultan, shovel, arctic pochard, great sandpiper, roller, common and Dalmatian pelican.

Population

Location by territory

The urban population is 49.6%. Large cities: Bucharest, Timisoara, Iasi, Brasov, Constanta, Galati, Ploiesti. Of the 10.3 million economically active population, 43.8% are employed in industry and construction, 29.8% in agriculture and forestry, 6.9% in transport and communications, and 6% in trade.

Number, type of reproduction, level of urbanization

The capital of Romania is Bucharest. Population – 22.8 million people. The annual natural population growth is 0.76%, which refers to the first type of reproduction. The state's demographic policy is aimed at increasing the population. The measures taken contributed to a decrease in the overall mortality rate of the population: in 1982 it was 10 per 1000 inhabitants, in 1938 - 19.1. The infant mortality rate has dropped by more than 70% compared to the average level of the last 30 years. In 1982, the birth rate was 8.5 per 1000 inhabitants. As a result of measures to protect health and improve the financial situation of workers, the average life expectancy in the country increased from 42 years in 1938 to almost 70 years by the beginning of 1983. The average population density is 93.5 people per 1 km2.

Peoples, language, religions

Of the nearly 19 million inhabitants of Romania (in 1963), over 16 million (about 86%) were Romanians. In addition to them, more than 1.6 million Hungarians and 0.4 million Germans live in Romania. Less significant groups of the population are Jews, Gypsies and representatives of Slavic peoples (including over 100 thousand Ukrainians and Russians). After the Second World War, Romania's population became more homogeneous. This happened because some Germans and Bulgarians emigrated to Germany and Bulgaria, respectively, and the number of Jews and Gypsies decreased sharply as a result of Nazi atrocities. The most homogeneous populations are in Wallachia and Moldova, where Romanians make up 97-98%. In the western regions, which for a long time were part of Hungary and Austria, about 1/3 of the population consists of national minorities. The country is also home to Ukrainians, Russians, Serbs, Croats, Slovenes, Bulgarians, Jews, Tatars, Turks, and Gypsies. Of the total population, 49.1% are men and 50.9% are women. current population: Romanians - 88.1%, Hungarians - 7.9%, Germans - 1.7%. The official language is Romanian. The believers are predominantly Orthodox Christians, there are also Catholics and Protestants.

Farm

The economy of Romania is an important link in the economic system of the countries. In the process of deepening the international division of labor, Romania is increasingly specializing in the production of products obtained from the processing of oil, natural gas, rock salt, and timber. The rapid pace of industrialization allows Romania to send more and more machinery and equipment to other countries every year. In addition, Romania, like its southern and western neighbors, specializes in supplying fruits, grapes, vegetables and their processed products to more northern countries. In turn, guaranteed supplies of complete industrial equipment, various machines, as well as some mass types of industrial raw materials from other countries are of paramount importance for Romania.

Industry

In modern Romania, several industrial areas have been formed and are in the process of formation. Among them, the industrial region of Central Muntenia stands out for its scale of production and diversity of industries; The industrial center of Brasov is connected to this area, whose main centers are Bucharest and Ploiesti. Together they produce about 2/5 of the country's industrial output. This region is distinguished primarily by mechanical engineering and oil refining, also occupying a leading place in the rubber, paper, and textile industries: its role is also great in the production of electricity, chemicals and food products.

Central Transylvania is the largest region of the gas chemical and glass industry. In the future, its importance in the production of electricity will increase

The Hunedoaro-Reshit industrial region has a pronounced coal and metallurgical specialization.

Along with these three industrial regions, the basis for the development of which was laid somewhat earlier, in recent years three more promising industrial regions have been rapidly emerging in previously underdeveloped areas.

Western Moldavian, covering the industrial centers of the Bacau region in the valley of the river. Siret and its tributaries Trotush and Eistrina The basis for the development of industry in this area is petrochemicals and a complex of industries related to forest processing, including the pulp and paper industry.

Olten industrial region (with main centers in Craiova and Targu Jiu). This area specializes in the extraction of oil, steam coal, and on this basis in the production of electricity and chemical products. Simultaneously with the development of energy and chemistry, the Olten region is deepening its specialization in electrical engineering and woodworking.

Lower Danube industrial region (with main centers Galati and Braila). In the future, this area will become the main base of the country's ferrous metallurgy with a developing engineering industry (primarily shipbuilding). In it, on the basis of the plant resources of the Balta, and especially the Danube Delta, the pulp, paper and chemical industries are also being developed.

Agriculture

Romania, among the countries of foreign Europe, is a large producer of agricultural products (especially grain); In years of average yield, these products not only cover the basic domestic needs of the country, but are also partially exported. Nowadays, along with favorable soil and climatic conditions in most parts of the country, important socio-economic prerequisites have been created that will make it possible to sharply increase the production of agricultural products in the near future.

In Romania, as in other countries of South-Eastern Europe, the main branch of agriculture is crop production. It provides about 2/3 of gross agricultural output; The share of livestock farming accounts for about 1/3. In most lowland areas, the share of crop farming is even higher. In mountainous and some hilly regions, livestock raising is the main branch of agriculture.

The decrease in grain crops in recent years has not led to a reduction in grain production, as yields have increased.

Among grain crops, corn and wheat predominate.

The main grain producers in Romania are the Lower Danube and Middle Danube lowlands.

In terms of the level of development of livestock farming, Romania is close to Bulgaria and Yugoslavia, but is still far behind, for example, Czechoslovakia. Low-intensity pasture livestock farming, characterized by relatively low productivity, is still widespread in the country. With the increase in crops of root crops and feed corn in recent years, more favorable conditions are being created for the expansion of livestock housing and the growth of livestock production.

Historical and cultural heritage

The Carpathians keep mysterious traces of Dacian fortresses - in Sarmisegetus and Porolissum. Numerous Roman thermal baths were built here - the ancestors of balneological resorts. The Romanian coast holds many archaeological mysteries. Seven centuries BC. Greek traders from Miletus landed in a convenient bay of the Black Sea and founded the flourishing fortress of Histria, traces of which have been discovered since 1914, making this place a wonderful open-air museum. The ancient Greeks then founded in this part of the world the fortress of Tomis - today's seaport of Constanta and Callatis - the current resort of Mangalia. Then came cohorts of Romans who left countless traces of their stay on the Black Sea coast and evidence of connections with the local Jeto-Dacians. The unusual open-air archaeological and historical museums located in Konstanz, countless traces of Greco-Latin antiquity give the area a special poetics. For 245 km, between the town of Vama Veke on the border with Bulgaria in the south and the Kiliya branch of the Danube Delta in the north, there are resorts

Conclusion

In conclusion, I would like to present a table expressing the main characteristics of Romania.

Application

Flag

Map

Bibliography

Geographical encyclopedic dictionary; Soviet Encyclopedia, Moscow, 1983.

Great Encyclopedia of Cyril and Methodius; Moscow, 2000

Internet resources:

Website http://tourism. mobile. ru – tourist guide to countries of the world

Website http://www.geo2000.da.ru – geographical directory

Website http://www.km.ru/education - Electronic megaencyclopedia

The evolution of the national economy of Romania at the end of 1990 directly depended on the progress of market reforms, the severity of measures for economic stabilization, on overcoming inflation and the economic interests of business entities. The peak of the economic downturn occurred in Romania in 1990-1992. GDP decreased over three years by almost 30% (in 1990 - by 5.6%, in 1991 - by 12.9, in the first half of the 90s of the twentieth century - by 12.5%). In 1993-1994, the decline in production was stopped.

But the economic depression has reached a terrible brink, beyond which looms the danger of deindustrialization, loss of scientific and technological potential, and displacement of national producers from the domestic market. This is especially clearly seen in the situation in the industry. Thanks to the critical reduction in domestic demand, the amount of industrial production in the first half of the 90s of the twentieth century was approximately 50% of the pre-reform level in 1989 (in industries creating consumer goods - 25-30%).

Agriculture faced no less difficult problems. The landslide land reform of 1991, accompanied by the spontaneous liquidation of cooperatives, the transfer of soil into private hands, and the change of state farms into joint-stock companies, significantly undermined the material and technical base, the possibilities of intensification and expanded reproduction in the industry.

Over the four years of reforms, the use of chemicals has almost tripled, the energy and machine intensity of production has fallen, the process of parcelization of land use has begun, which has resulted in sharp fluctuations in crop production, and heavy damage has been caused to livestock farming. Despite the fact that in the first half of the 90s of the twentieth century the country managed to provide itself with food grain, non-specialized dependence on the import of food products quickly increased.

The social cost of market reforms was also higher than expected. Despite the fact that during the reform it was possible to lay the foundation for social protection and social partnership (a set of indexation of all types of income, targeted assistance to the poor, a set of collective agreements, etc.), the solvency of the population, the quality and standard of living quickly declined.

With an average increase in prices for services and consumer goods for the period from October 1990 to December 1994 approximately 80 times, average pensions and salaries increased 60 times. According to trade unions, the level of real wages has halved. Processes of rapid property stratification began in society; Unemployment is growing (at the end of 1994, 10% of the active population, in some areas - up to 15%).

Emigration has increased, which, together with a decrease in the birth rate, has caused the country's population to decline by almost 2 percent over the years of reforms. According to official estimates, in 1993-1994 the Romanian economy passed the peak of the crisis and, according to government calculations, economic growth and strengthening of stabilization can be expected in the near future.

The optimism of government statements is largely refuted by political leaders and the opposition of trade unions, constant protests by workers against growing social inequality and worsening conditions. All this has forced important adjustments to be made to the reform strategy since the end of 1992.

From the ideas of market radicalism, embedded in the first reform program of 1990 and providing for the transition to a market economy in two to three years, the country's governance was increasingly inclined to an evolutionary model of transformation. The most significant transformations were made in the privatization of property and the process of denationalization. The privatization model chosen in the country (free distribution of 30% of state property to the population and sale of the remaining 70% to Romanian and foreign individuals and legal entities) encountered the complexity of a real assessment of state property, was accompanied by large thefts, the origin of various bureaucratic structures, pervasive corruption (according to some estimates, the number The shadow economy amounted to almost two-fifths of GDP in the first half of the 90s of the twentieth century).

The liberalization of costs, which began in October 1990 in conditions of commodity shortages, monopolism of producers, and a decline in production, led to cost inflation, which changed demand inflation at the initial stage of the reform. But the government only slowly, over the course of two or three years, lowered prices for basic services and consumer goods, and kept pricing for strategically important types of products under control.

The central element of deflationary policy was measures to curb financial and credit emissions. From the practice of low-cost loans at the beginning of reforms, the National Bank of Romania (NBR) moved from April 1991 to a firm limitation of credit emission, liberalization of discount rates, and from May 1992 - to the introduction of really good rates on borrowed bank funds, to a reduction in preferential lending.

Throughout the reform, a new tax system was created, closer to the European model. A course was taken towards moderate taxation, separation of forms of tax exemptions, and increased benefits for a sequence of economic activities that were serious from a national economic point of view.

The medium- and long-term programs for the development of the national economy until the year 2000 created by the government, while maintaining the rules of consistent liberalization of economic fate, at the same time rely on a more complete consideration of national interests and specifics, on the search for a combination of market mechanisms and national regulation. The reprimand is transferred to the revival of material production, to the stimulation, first of all, of domestic producers of export products.

The first plan for the period until 2000 includes the tasks of structural modernization and the creation of a complex of competitive industries. An active, strictly selective state policy should play a major role in this process, implying targeted assistance to “growth points”, industries and those industries that have the greatest chance in the world.

The presidential and parliamentary elections held in September 1992 revealed a more or less real alignment of political forces, the relationship between reformist ideas and other concepts, and the degree of their social assistance. A more than convincing victory was won in the elections by I. Iliescu, who took more than 61% of the votes, and the Democratic National Salvation Front, which supported him, later renamed the Party of Social Democracy of Romania (PSDR). But the PSDR, which took 28% of the seats in the country’s legislature, failed to create a pro-presidential and pro-government bloc with a conglomerate of parties called the Democratic Convention of Romania (DCR), which, together with the Democratic Party of Romania (DPR) and the Democratic Alliance of Hungarians in Romania (DSVR), is in the top and the lower houses of parliament 44% of the seats.

The real political force in Romania at the end of the 1990s were the trade unions, the split in political sympathies and structure of which did not prevent them from speaking out from a united position of dissatisfaction with government policies. The massive demarches made by trade unions in 1990-1994 significantly influenced the tactics of economic reforms and became the reason for the change of government cabinet in the first half of the 90s of the twentieth century.

At the end of 1990, the process of rapprochement with the European Union began. For more than 15 years, Romania has undergone strict political, economic and social reforms, and great improvements have been made, both monetary and moral, in order to get closer to European standards. The legislation was fully brought into line with the requirements of Brussels, and to this day it is being put into practice.

A large number of unresolved issues remain. For example, Romania needs to continue economic and administrative reforms, it is necessary to maintain the high growth rate of production in recent years (8.4% in 2006) and production and a high level of competitiveness.

Continuing the reform of the legal system, fighting bribes, lowering the level of bureaucracy, strengthening border controls, modernizing and developing agriculture, education, health care, opening the financial sector and the labor market, etc. are extremely important tasks for the government after Romania's accession to the EU, which must be resolved. In terms of ensuring the security of the country, NATO is the main guarantor of Romania’s security even after accession to the EU. There is enormous potential for cooperation between NATO and the EU.

The main priority of the foreign policy of both Romania and the EU is the energy security of the continent.

The success of the search for optimal ways to form a democratic society in Romania and create a market economy depends on a set of internal and external conditions, as well as on the success of the social partnership policy, the sensitivity of society to new realities, the scale of Western assistance in the form of loans and investments, which in many respects will determine the effectiveness of the reforms.

49. Bulgaria

Non-specialized information

Area - 111 thousand km2, population - 7.8 million people. (2004). Geopolitical position: located in South-Eastern Europe in the north-east of the Balkan Peninsula, bordered by Romania, Serbia, Montenegro, Macedonia, Greece, Turkey; has access to the Dark Sea. The form of government is a parliamentary republic.

The climate is moderate continental, in the south it is transitional to Mediterranean. Necessary minerals: lead-zinc, bronze, metal ores, brown and hard coal, table salt, marble, etc.

Population

Main trends:

O Decrease in natural population growth (in 2001, the birth rate was 8.6‰, mortality - 14.1‰, natural increase became negative: -5.5‰ (2002)).

O Population aging (the share of young people (under 20 years) decreased from 51.1% in 1900 to 21% in 2003, and the elderly (60 years and older) increased from 8.4% to 22.5% ).

O Excess of the female population (in 2003, men made up 48.7% of the population, women - 51.3%).

O The urban population is increasing (it accounted for 46.5% in 1965, and by 2004 - 70%).

O Increasing the retirement age (in 2003 it was 57 years for the year and 62 for women for men).

O The main religion is Orthodoxy (82.6% of the population).

Economy

Components of the economic crisis:

1. Increasing the state budget by 1996;

2. Slow pace of economic reform;

3. Increasing the unprofitability of state-owned enterprises;

4. Termination of privatization in the country (during the entire period of privatization, revenues to the treasury amounted to 800 million);

5. Huge national internal and external debt;

6. poor monetary discipline, corruption of the top management of banks, issuance of non-repayable loans:

• Bulgarian “pyramids”;
• issuing huge loans to mining companies, which were not distributed at the enterprise, but were transferred to Western banks;
• “grain famine” (due to weak government, a large amount of grain was smuggled into the Republic of Yugoslavia at inflated prices). As a result, 700 million. was spent on purchasing grain for their own country, which devastated the treasury.

Years of inflation surge:

® 1991 - “shock therapy”. Consumer prices increased 5.7 times;

® 1996 – beginning 1997 - crisis of the monetary and financial system (in the beginning of 1996, 1 ​​dollar = 74 leva, in the second half of 1996 - 1 dollar = 1076 leva; by the second half of 1996, industrial production fell rapidly -in, agriculture, living standards of the country.

In the 90s the average salary was $200, in 1996 it was $25–30. About 80% of the population lived below the poverty line, unemployment was about 20%);

® For 1996 – 2002 average annual consumer prices increased 39 times;

® The inflation rate in 2001 was 4.1%, in 2002 - 4.8%.

The process of overcoming the crisis

O 1997 - creation of the Currency Council, which was endowed with all the functions of the Bulgarian People's Bank and the Ministry of Finance;

O establishment of a fixed exchange rate of the lev pegged to the euro;

O increasing gold and foreign exchange reserves from $3.5 billion in 2000 to $4.75 billion by 2003;

O 1998 - agreement with the International Monetary Fund, accession to the WTO, the country became a member of the Council of Europe;

O strengthening of assistance to medium and small businesses, privatization (46% was personal property in the public sector in 2000, 70% of the country's GDP is created in the private sector), investment legislation was revised, which caused the flow of investment into the country (in 1990 - 1992 direct foreign investment in the country amounted to $0.1 billion, in 2004 - $7.569 billion), Western states, especially Germany, provided enormous assistance;

O focus on reducing the state budget (1.1% of GDP in 2000, 0.7% in 2002).

Bulgaria's labor force trait

Structure of GDP production

Agriculture

Industry structure

1 – manufacturing (80%), 2 – mining (5%), 3 – supply of electricity and heat, gas, water

Leading branches of the manufacturing industry

u food

u non-ferrous metallurgy

u production of petroleum products

u production of soda ash, mineral fertilizers

u mechanical engineering (over 10% of gross output)

Transport development

Foreign policy

The Czech Republic is a state in Central Europe, formed on January 1, 1993 after the collapse of the Czech and Slovak Federal Republic (CSFR). From 1918 to 1992 inclusive - an integral part of Czechoslovakia. It consists of Czech soils: Bohemia, Moravia and part of Silesia.

The area of ​​the country is 78,864 square meters. km, population – 10.3 million people. The republic borders in the northwest and west with Germany, in the north with Poland, in the east with Slovakia and in the south with Austria. Capital – Prague

The territory of the Czech Republic covers 78.9 thousand square kilometers. The Czech landscape is very diverse. The western part (Bohemia) lies in the basins of the Elbe (Labé) and Vltava (Moldau) rivers, surrounded mostly by low mountains (part of them and the Sudeten Mountains - Giant Mountains), where the highest point of the country is located - Mount Snezka with a height of 1602 m. Moravia, eastern part , besides this it is quite hilly and for the most part lies in the basin of the Morava River (March), and contains the source of the Oder River (Odra).

Romania's coal mining industry has remained a problem for all governments in the country since 1990. The fact is that Romanian mines produce brown coal, which is not in demand not only abroad, but also in Romania itself. The cost of its production is several times higher than its market price. So the government has to heavily subsidize coal mining.

Another important industry is the chemical industry, which has a sufficient raw material base in the form of oil reserves, natural gas, rock salt, sulfur-containing raw materials, and wood. The leading role in the development of this industry belongs to petrochemistry, where the production of polymers (plastics, synthetic rubber and fibers, detergents and various intermediate products) is concentrated in large plants. The production of mineral fertilizers has also been developed, especially nitrogen fertilizers, in the production of which natural gas is widely used, and inorganic chemicals, primarily chlorine-soda products. Romania exports nitrogen fertilizers, synthetic rubber, rubber products, soda, varnishes, paints and other products to other countries.

The wood products industry, which once produced primarily lumber, now produces plywood, parquet, wood-based panels, furniture, prefabricated homes, sports equipment and musical instruments that are in demand in global markets. Light industry exports garments, shoes, knitwear, carpets and other consumer goods; food - canned food, grape wines, salt, vegetable oil, cheeses and meat products.

Agricultural lands occupy more than 3/5 of the country's territory (15 million hectares), with arable land predominating. The leading branch of crop production is grain farming. The main grains are: wheat - the most important food crop (occupies mainly the more fertile chernozem soils in the lowlands) and corn - the main forage crop (widespread in agricultural areas).

Among other grains, barley is sown in significant quantities, and oats and rye are sown in small quantities in mountainous regions. A new crop is rice, cultivated in the south in the floodplains.

The most notable industrial crops are sunflower, for which Romania ranks third in the world in harvests, and sugar beets.

Among the various mineral resources, there are reserves of natural gas - methane, which lies in the depths of the Transylvanian Plateau. Large deposits of rock salt are also found here. In the spurs of the mountains, many deposits of non-ferrous metals will increase.

Romania, which until recently was a pariah, is now Brussels’ favorite. The European Commission sharply criticized Bucharest for corruption and poverty and demanded reforms and respect for human rights. The criticism seems to have had an effect. At least, the results of the actions of the Romanian authorities are obvious.

Despite the fact that most Europeans consider Romanians to be the main participants in labor migration on the continent, it is Romania that is now in first place in the united Europe in terms of economic growth. In the second quarter of this year it was 5.7% annualized. Last year, the growth rate of the Romanian economy was 4.8%; and in 2015 – 3.9%. According to IMF forecasts, Romania's economy will grow by 5.5% this year. For comparison: the EU average economic growth rate is 2.4%.

Lower taxes, higher wages

All sectors of the economy are developing: the services sector, manufacturing, exports. Consumption last year reached its highest level in a decade, i.e. since the country joined the European Union in 2007, and in the first half of this year increased by another 8%.

“The government cut consumption taxes in 2015,” Ionut Dumitru, chief economist at Raiffeisen Bank Romania and chairman of the Romanian Fiscal Council, explained to the London Guardian. - The authorities reduced VAT from 24% first to 20, and now to 19%. This became a strong stimulus for consumption growth. In addition, the government has doubled the minimum wage over the past four years. Salaries have also increased significantly in the public sector.”

However, salaries in Romania remain below the European average, making it an attractive location for outsourcing to Western companies. In terms of salaries, Romania is in second place in the EU after Bulgaria - 308 euros per month. It is low wages that stop tens of thousands of Romanians from returning home, who have left to look for work in other European countries. As a result of the outflow of labor, Romania last year recorded the lowest unemployment rate in history - 5.9% (the EU average is 8.6%). At the end of 2017, according to forecasts, it will decrease to 5.4%.

On the material and technical basis of socialism

The high-tech sector shows the highest rates. A good support for the rapid development of IT is the strong scientific foundation laid during socialism. Experts believe that the IT sector, which employs about one and a half hundred thousand people, should double its share in the country’s GDP and bring it to 12% by 2025. It is significant that in terms of Internet speed, Romania is second only to Singapore, Hong Kong, South Korea and Iceland.

Western companies are vigorously investing in the Romanian economy. Ford, for example, has invested €1.2 billion in Romania over the past nine years and announced plans to hire about a thousand more people at its Craiova plant. Thus, the total number of employees at the Romanian enterprises of the American auto giant will reach 3,700 people. Other large Western companies, such as Siemens, Bosch, Fitbit, are also expanding production in Romania.

In terms of revenue, the largest company in Romania remains the automaker Dacia, which is now owned by Renault-Nissan - 4.47 billion euros (2016). Renault has penetrated the country since the times of people's democracy, the Dacia brand has been known since then.

Progress, protest and corruption

The Romanian economy continues to be hampered by its reputation as one of the most corrupt countries in Europe. There is, of course, progress in the fight against corruption, but getting rid of the image that has developed over many years is not easy.

There are other obstacles too. In February, for example, the largest protest demonstrations in many years swept across the country. The reason for this was that the government passed through parliament a law decriminalizing giving and receiving small bribes.

Weak transport infrastructure does not contribute to rapid economic development. According to the latest World Economic Forum Global Competitiveness Report, Romania ranks 128th out of 138 in the road rankings. The length of the motorway network is only 747 km. The railways are also very outdated. According to them, Romania is in 79th place.

Economists are also concerned about the growing budget deficit. In 2016, it grew to 3% of GDP, although a year earlier it was only 0.8%. The main reasons are increased spending and lower taxes.

“The main danger for the economy is the fiscal situation,” says Ionut Dumitru. “The state budget deficit is under strong pressure.”

Eurotigers

But despite numerous problems, Romania's prospects are good. Economists believe that economic growth will continue, at least in the near future. Growth rates are forecast to slow to 4% in 2018, but even so they will remain among the highest in Europe.

The country is quite deservedly acquiring the reputation of the European “tiger”, as Asian states of rapid growth are usually called, since tigers have a rapid leap. In Eastern Europe, for example, Slovenia and the Czech Republic became almost as successful over a quarter of a century, but they never came up with their own beast.