Maximilian's triumphal arch. Triumphal processions of ancient Rome again spark controversy The triumph of the Roman emperor after Rome's victory over Macedonia
Sack of Jerusalem, relief on the Arch of Titus, Rome, 1st century.
Triumph was given only at the end of the war (there were exceptions), and, moreover, one that was accompanied by a heavy defeat of the enemies. There was a rule to give a triumph only if at least five thousand enemies were killed. The commander, who was seeking triumph, was awaiting a decision on whether he would be granted triumph while outside the city limits, due to the fact that a magistrate who had not yet formed an imperium was not allowed to enter the city. Therefore, in this case, the Senate gathered outside the city, on the Campus Martius, usually in the temple of Bellona or Apollo, and there they listened to the commander. By virtue of a special law, triumphants received imperium in the city on the day of their triumph. On the day appointed for the triumph, those participating in it gathered early in the morning on the Campus Martius, where in a public building (lat. villa publica) was a triumphant man at that time. The latter dressed in a special luxurious suit, similar to the robe of the statue of Jupiter Capitolinus. He wore a tunic embroidered with palm branches (lat. tunica palmata), a purple toga decorated with gold stars (lat. toga picta), gilded shoes, in one hand he took a laurel branch, in the other he held a richly decorated ivory scepter with an image of an eagle at the top; on his head was a laurel wreath.
The triumphant rode standing on a round gilded chariot drawn by four horses. When Camill first harnessed white horses during his triumph, it was met with a murmur from the public, but subsequently white horses during his triumph became ordinary. Instead of horses, elephants, deer and other animals were sometimes harnessed. The triumphal chariot formed the center of the entire procession, which was opened by senators and magistrates. Musicians (trumpeters) walked behind. For the public, crowded along the entire long path of the procession in festive costumes, with wreaths of flowers and greenery in their hands, of particular interest was that part of the procession in which the winner tried to show off the large number and wealth of captured military booty.
In ancient times, while Rome waged wars with its poor neighbors, the spoils were simple: the main part of it consisted of weapons, livestock and captives. But when Rome began to wage war in the rich, cultural countries of the East, the victors sometimes brought so much booty that they had to stretch out the triumph for two or three days. On special stretchers, on chariots or simply in their hands, they carried and carried a lot of weapons, enemy banners, subsequently also images of captured cities and fortresses and various kinds of symbolic statues, then tables on which there were inscriptions testifying to the exploits of the winner or explaining the meaning of the objects carried . Sometimes there were works of conquered countries, rare animals, etc. They often carried precious utensils, gold and silver coins in vessels and precious metals not in use, sometimes in huge quantities.
Cultural countries, especially Greece, Macedonia and other areas where Hellenistic education was established, provided many artistic treasures, statues, paintings, etc. for the triumph. There were also golden wreaths presented to the winner by different cities. During the triumph of Aemilius Paulus there were about 400, and during the triumphs of Julius Caesar over Gaul, Egypt, Pontus and Africa there were about 3,000. Priests and youths accompanied white sacrificial bulls with gilded horns, decorated with garlands. In the eyes of Roman commanders, noble captives were a particularly valuable decoration of triumph: defeated kings, their families and assistants, and enemy commanders. Some of the prisoners during the triumph were killed, by order of the triumphant, in a special prison lying on the slope of the Capitol. In ancient times, such beatings of prisoners were common and probably originally had the character of a human sacrifice, but examples can also be cited from a later era: this is how Jugurtha and Caesar’s opponent in Gaul, Vercingetorix, died. In front of the triumphant were lictors with fasces entwined with laurel; buffoons entertained the crowd.
The triumphant man was surrounded by children and other relatives, behind them stood a state slave holding a golden wreath over his head. The slave from time to time reminded the triumphant that he was just a mortal (memento mori), and he should not be too proud. Behind the triumphant were his assistants, legates and military tribunes on horseback; sometimes they were followed by citizens freed from captivity by the triumphant, and soldiers in full finery, with all the awards they had, made a procession. They exclaimed “Jo triumphe” and sang impromptu songs in which they sometimes ridiculed the shortcomings of the triumphant himself. Starting on the Campus Martius, near the triumphal gates, the procession passed through two crowded circuses (Flaminiev and Bolshoi, Maximus), then along Via Sacra through the forum up to the Capitol. There the triumphant dedicated laurels of fasces to Jupiter and made a magnificent sacrifice. Then came the refreshment of magistrates and senators, often soldiers, and even the entire public; For the latter, games were also organized in circuses. Sometimes the commander gave gifts to the public. Gifts to soldiers were a general rule and sometimes reached significant amounts (for example, Caesar’s soldiers received five thousand denarii).
Persons who received a triumph had the right to subsequently wear triumphal attire on holidays. During the imperial period, triumphs became the exclusive property of the emperors themselves, which was explained both by the latter's reluctance to give their subjects this highest honor, and by the fact that the emperor was considered the commander-in-chief of all military forces of the empire, and, consequently, the military leaders of this period lacked one of the main conditions for receiving triumph - the right to wage war "suis auspiciis". Having reserved triumph only for themselves and sometimes for their closest relatives, the emperors began to give other generals, in return for triumph, only the right to wear triumphal attire (ornamenta, insignia triumphalia) on special occasions and placed statues of the victors among the statues of the triumphants. The last triumph was, it seems, celebrated by Diocletian. A less important and solemn form of triumph was the so-called “ovation.”
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LESSON 2. ROMAN CONQUESTS IN THE 2nd CENTURY B.C.
The further development of Roman aggression and the establishment of Roman dominance throughout the Mediterranean is considered. The aggressive nature of the wars of the 2nd century is emphasized on the part of the Romans. BC e., as a result of which the once independent flourishing regions were turned into powerless provinces, plundered by the conquerors.
Options for starting a lesson: I. B 1, 3-5; A 1, 3; B 6-7. II. B 1, 3-4; A 2; B 6-7. III. B 1, 3-5, 7; A 3. IV. B 1-7. Questions and tasks:
A. 1. What began first: the second Punic War or the campaign of Alexander’s troops in Asia? How much earlier? Draw a “time line” on the board and mark the required dates on it. 2. One student should draw on the board a plan of the location of the Roman troops at Cannae, the direction of military attacks, and at the same time talk about the battle on behalf of its legionnaire participant. Another student should draw the formation of the Carthaginian troops, the direction of their attacks and at the same time talk about the battle on behalf of a warrior in Hannibal’s army. The teacher guides the answers, giving the floor to either the “Roman” or the “Carthaginian.” 3. What do you see as Hannibal's outstanding leadership abilities? Students are able to give a detailed justification using the following facts: a) Hannibal’s sudden invasion of Italy (crossing the Alps); b) encirclement and defeat of the numerically superior Roman army at Cannae; c) a plan to win over the peoples of Italy conquered by Rome (Gauls, Greeks, etc.).
B. 1. What were the names of the wars between Rome and Carthage? Why were they called that? What were their reasons? 2. How did the Romans create a navy and defeat the Carthaginians at sea?
(Based on the filmstrip “The Wars of Rome with Carthage.”) 3. How did the first Punic War end? 4. Tell us about Hannibal’s invasion of Italy. Show on the map the path of his troops. 5. Show on the map the locations of Hannibal's two main battles. (Cannes, Zamy.) What are the results of each battle? 6. Why couldn't Hannibal conquer Italy? 7. How did the second Punic War end?
Study Plan ( This plan follows the chronology of events. The textbook covers the Third Punic War before the Roman conquests in the Eastern Mediterranean (an advantage of the textbook outline is that the destruction of Carthage is thematically linked to the previous lesson). The teacher can choose any plan for studying the material): 1. Roman conquests in the Eastern Mediterranean. 2. The Third Punic War and the destruction of Carthage. 3. Robbery of conquered countries by the Romans.
1. Rome, having crushed Carthage, began to reign supreme in the Western Mediterranean. It is useful to show students on a wall map the approximate boundaries of both of these regions (Western and Eastern Mediterranean). “What states arose in the Eastern Mediterranean after the campaigns of Alexander the Great?” asks the teacher. Complementing the answers, he recalls that the Syrian kingdom, Egypt, Macedonia and other smaller states were constantly at enmity with each other. The internecine wars of the eastern parishes were beneficial to the Romans; the rule of the Roman Senate was: “divide and conquer!” (“How do you understand this expression?” Students are able to point out that the Romans deliberately set neighboring peoples and states against each other and separately defeated their troops.)
A more detailed story about the fate of Hannibal than in the textbook will help to connect the material of the previous and this lessons.
Soon after the end of the Second Punic War, Hannibal was forced to flee to the east, where he became an adviser to the Syrian king Antiochus. Hannibal was old and sick, but remained true to his oath and was ready to fight the Romans. “Zay, king,” he said to his master, “the Romans are warlike and cruel; they strive to conquer the whole world. Remember how they humiliated my homeland. The Romans took almost all of Carthage's possessions for themselves. Forget, king, your old enmity with the kings of other states of the East. Unite! Only by working together will you be able to defeat the Romans. Otherwise, slavery awaits you all.” But the king of Syria did not heed the wise advice of the famous commander.
Students can learn about the defeat of the Syrian kingdom by reading the textbook aloud (§ 46, paragraph 2). After this, the teacher ends the story of Hannibal, who fled to Bithynia (Asia Minor). And here he became a military adviser to the king.
Having learned about this, the Romans demanded the extradition of Hannibal. One day the old commander saw that his house was surrounded by armed men. Not wanting to become a prisoner of the Romans, Hannibal took poison.
The teacher says that after Syria, the Romans subjugated Macedonia. He can offer compare the formation of Roman and Macedonian troops in battle and draw a conclusion. (Which army was more perfect? What?) After listening to the answers, the teacher either again uses the technique of loud reading (§ 46, paragraph 3), or talks about the Battle of Pydna himself.
The blow of the Macedonian phalanx was so strong that the Roman advance detachments were crushed and began to retreat to the hills located near the Roman camp itself. The Roman consul, who had turned gray in battle, later often recalled what a terrible impression the attack of the phalanx made on him. But the very swiftness of the blow destroyed the Macedonians. The ranks of the phalanx broke in some places due to their rapid pursuit of the Romans and uneven ground. The consul took advantage of this and threw mobile detachments into the resulting intervals. The Romans began to attack the Macedonians from the flanks and rear, disrupting their ranks. The Macedonian king Perseus, confused, fled from the battlefield. The battle lasted less than an hour. 20 thousand Macedonians remained on the battlefield. 11 thousand were captured. Roman losses were ridiculously small ( See: Kovalev S.I. History of Rome. L., 1948, p. 284-285).
Students will learn about the conquest of Macedonia and Greece by Rome, and the death of the largest trading center in Greece - Corinth (146 BC). Roman merchants insisted on the destruction of the city. The place where Corinth stood was cursed, the surviving inhabitants were sold into slavery, and works of art were taken to Rome.
2. Militarily, Carthage did not pose any threat to Rome, but Roman merchants were afraid of the rivalry of more experienced Carthaginian merchants. The Carthaginians were engaged in peaceful work, they grew grapes and olives and traded wine and oil in all Mediterranean countries.
One day, the old and influential senator Cato arrived in Carthage at the head of the Roman embassy. He looked at the Carthaginian port with displeasure: many ships stood at the piers and merchants sported bright clothes. “Fifty years ago,” thought Cato, “when I fought here under Scipio, the Poonas trembled with fear. And now they have forgotten everything - they enjoy life and get rich.” Returning to his homeland, Cato spoke in the Senate. “Carthage is thriving! - he said indignantly. - Maritime trade has enriched the Poons, and meanwhile our merchants are suffering losses. I believe that Carthage must be destroyed." From now on, speaking at every meeting of the Senate, no matter what was discussed, Cato always ended his speech with the same words: "Still I believe that Carthage must be destroyed". Cato was supported by Roman merchants, who knew that wine and olive oil from the African possessions of Carthage were more readily bought than Italian ones. The Senate openly demanded that Carthage be wiped off the face of the earth.
In the story about the siege and assault of Carthage, you can use either the color filmstrip “The Wars of Rome with Carthage” (frames 37-46) or the drawings on pp. 191-192. The last picture gives an idea of the heroism of the inhabitants who defended Carthage for six days, when there was no longer any hope of salvation. The brutal Roman legionnaires stormed house after house, slowly moving through the burning streets towards the city center, killing everyone in their path.
Carthage burned for seventeen days. Choking smoke lay low on the ground. Instead of a beautiful city full of life, a lifeless field with shapeless ruins stretched all the way to the bay. The place where Carthage stood, where artisans worked and merchants traded, was given over to eternal damnation, so that from now on neither houses nor arable land would appear on it. So the Senate commanded ( See: Nemirovsky A.I. Three wars. L., 1961, p. 131-132).
Summarizing, the teacher notes that as a result of victorious wars, Rome became in the middle of the 2nd century. BC e. the strongest state in the entire Mediterranean. Egypt and several smaller states still retained their independence, but none of them dared to fight Rome.
3. The question is revealed in the volume of the textbook (§ 46, paragraphs 4-5); concepts are introduced province and triumph.
It is advisable to use the painting by S. Ankundinov “The Triumph of the Roman Emperor”. Before showing it, the teacher says that in Rome, after every major victory, a holiday was held, which was called a triumph: an army led by a commander solemnly entered the city.
Having hung the picture, the teacher explains that the front gate in the shape of an arch was erected especially for the festival: all participants in the triumph passed through it. He invites students to construct a story based on the picture and helps them do this: “We see three groups of people in the picture: 1) Roman soldiers; 2) prisoners; 3) citizens meeting the army. Include a description of each group in the story.” Typically, students complete the task successfully; the teacher corrects errors in answers and makes additions (see manual, table 19).
| - | When describing a picture, students are able to express the following thoughts: | Teacher's additions as students describe the picture |
| ROMAN ARMY | The commander rides on a gilded chariot. It is harnessed to white horses. He is wearing red clothes and has a wreath on his head. In one hand of the commander there is a staff, in the other there is a green branch. In front of the chariot are trumpeters and the consul's guard. The commander's chariot is followed by his army | The clothes are painted purple. The slave holds another wreath over the commander's head - a golden one. This commander received the honorary nickname - emperor (in Latin, “lord, commander-in-chief”). It was given to him by the Senate or directly by the army for his success in the war. A distinguished commander was called emperor not throughout his life, but for a certain period of time - usually during a holiday on the occasion of a victory. The teacher either invites students to remember what they know about lictors (see manual, p. 273), or talks about them himself |
| PRISONERS | Prisoners tied with one chain are driven ahead. They are wearing rags. It is clear from their looks that they hate the Romans. A woman holds a child in her arms | These are probably the most noble captives, they will be turned into slaves, and possibly executed. The child is dead, he didn't survive the long journey |
| CROWD | The townspeople greet the soldiers, wave branches, and hold out flowers. There are smiles on their faces | Priests stand in front of the fires of the altars (on the right), they thank the gods for the victory |
At the end of working with the painting, a possible task: “Think about how triumph would make you feel if you were in Rome. What would be your personal attitude towards such celebrations? After listening to the answer, the teacher draws attention to the contrast between the jubilant Roman crowd and the sad figures of the prisoners. For some, triumph is joy, for others - humiliation and loss of freedom. The magnificent spectacle of triumph was nothing more than a display of plundered booty and enslaved people.
The teacher can write a description of the picture himself, without assigning it to the students. (If the school does not have the named picture, color Fig. 17 can be used.)
Homework: § 46. Answer the question for the document “Plutarch’s Description of Triumph” (p. 194). Questions and tasks 1-3 to § 46.
On the day appointed for the triumph, those participating in it gathered early in the morning on the Champ de Mars, where the triumphant was staying in a public building at that time. The latter dressed in a special luxurious suit, similar to the robe of the statue of Jupiter Capitolinus. He wore a tunic embroidered with palm branches, a purple toga decorated with gold stars, gilded shoes, took a laurel branch in one hand, and in the other held a richly decorated ivory scepter with an image of an eagle at the top; on his head was a laurel wreath.
The triumphant rode standing on a round gilded chariot drawn by four horses. The triumphal chariot formed the center of the entire procession, which was opened by senators and magistrates. The musicians walked behind. For the public, crowded along the entire long path of the procession in festive costumes, with wreaths of flowers and greenery in their hands, of particular interest was that part of the procession in which the winner tried to show off the large number and wealth of captured military booty.
On special stretchers, on chariots or simply in their hands, they carried and carried a lot of weapons, enemy banners, subsequently also images of captured cities and fortresses and various kinds of symbolic statues, then tables on which there were inscriptions testifying to the exploits of the winner or explaining the meaning of the objects carried . Sometimes there were works of conquered countries, rare animals, etc. They often carried precious utensils, gold and silver coins in vessels and precious metals not in use, sometimes in huge quantities.
Priests and youths accompanied white sacrificial bulls with gilded horns and decorated with garlands. In the eyes of Roman commanders, noble captives were a particularly valuable decoration of triumph: defeated kings, their families and assistants, and enemy commanders. In front of the triumphant were lictors with fasces entwined with laurel; buffoons entertained the crowd.
The triumphant man was surrounded by children and other relatives, behind them stood a state slave holding a golden wreath over his head. The slave from time to time reminded the triumphant that he was only a mortal, and he should not be too proud. Behind the triumphant were his assistants, legates and military tribunes on horseback; sometimes they were followed by citizens freed from captivity by the triumphant, and soldiers in full finery, with all the awards they had, made a procession. They exclaimed “io triumphe” and sang impromptu songs, in which they sometimes ridiculed the shortcomings of the triumphant himself. Starting on the Campus Martius, near the triumphal gates, the procession passed through two crowded circuses (Flaminiev and Bolshoi, Maximus), then along Via Sacra through the forum up to the Capitol. There the triumphant dedicated laurels of fasces to Jupiter and made a magnificent sacrifice.
Winged horses. Detail of the pediment composition of the Temple of Ara della Regina in Tarquinia. Terracotta. IV century BC e.
Fibula from the tomb of Regolini-Galassi and Cerveteri. Gold. OK. 650 BC e. Vatican, Gregorian Etruscan Museum
Musician's head. Detail of the painting of the tomb of the Leopards in Tarquinia. 475-455 BC e.
The so-called “Black Stone” with the oldest Latin inscription
Sarcophagus depicting a married couple from Cerveteri. Detail. Terracotta.
Beginning of the 6th century BC e.
Servian Wall
Items found in burials in the Forum
Capitoline wolf
Tarquinius and Mastarna. Etruscan painting
Round temple in the Forum Boarium in Rome. OK. 120 BC e.
Temple of Fortuna Virilis in the Forum Boarium in Rome.
OK. 100-80 BC e.
Jupiter. Roman work of the 1st century.
Aphrodite (Venus), the so-called "Aphrodite in the Gardens".
Ares (Mars).
Roman copy from a Greek original of the 5th century. BC e.
Bronze gladiator helmet from Herculaneum
Gladiator fight
Gladiator fight. Mosaic from the Empire
Goddess Roma, patroness of the city of Rome. Statue in the Capitol, Rome
Restored in the 1st century. Column of Duilius, decorated with the prows of wrecked ships
Milvian Bridge in Rome. End of the 2nd century BC e.
Roman denarius 268-264. BC e.
On facial side depicts the goddess Roma, on reverse - Dioscuri
Copper Roman ass(aes grave) 311-271 BC e. On facial side - an image of two-faced Janus, on negotiable- bow of the ship
Coin (denarius) of the rebel Italians. An Italian ox tramples a Roman she-wolf
Coin depicting Antony and Octavian
The so-called tomb of the Tarquins.
The supposed Tarquin crypt was found at the end of the 19th century. in Caere. On its walls the name of the Tarquins is engraved 35 times in Etruscan: “Tarkhna”. But this is not yet enough to claim that this is the tomb of the Roman Tarquins
Pyrrhus. Marble bust
Guy Tsilniy Maecenas. Carved amethyst. The work of the famous engraver Dioscorides
Appian Way. Reconstruction of Janine
Scipio Africanus
Crossing of Hannibal's troops across the Rodan River (Rhone)
Hannibal
(according to modern engraving)
Sulla. Marble
Guy Mari. Marble
Gnaeus Pompey the Great.
Caesar. Marble. End of the 1st century BC e.
Marble bust of the 1st century. BC e.
Etruscan warrior statue. Bronze
Samnite warrior. Bronze
Samnite standard bearer and warrior. Based on images on an Italian vase. The armament of the warriors resembles Greek designs, but has local features, in particular the half-cuirass (left) and bronze combat belts on both warriors
Warriors of Republican Rome: triarius, hastatius and velite
The battle order of the Roman legion in the 3rd century. BC e.
Manipulative battle formation
Organization of the Roman army in the 3rd century. BC e.
Weapons of the ancient Romans
Shield of a Roman cavalry warrior
Roman cavalry warrior helmet
Armor of rich Roman horsemen
Roman large shield-scutum
Centurion
Throwing a pilum
Jupiter sending rain to the Roman army. Relief from the Antoninus Column.
Jupiter in the form of a winged old man, stretching out his long arms, from which streams of water flow, the legionnaires collect it in helmets and shields, and the barbarians lie on the ground, struck by lightning
Roman orders
Roman horseman
Plan of a Roman camp for two legions. Schematic reconstruction according to Polybius: 1. Praetorium, the area where the commander’s tent was located. 2. Forum, a square used for gatherings. 3. Altar. 4. Premises of the praetorian cohort, the personal guard of the commander. 5. Auxiliary cavalry barracks. 6. Legionnaires' barracks. 7. Barracks of auxiliary infantry detachments. 8. Barracks of a detachment of veterans newly called up for military service. 9. The area where the quaestor's tent was located. 10. Main street of the camp. 11. A street parallel to the main one, where merchants trading with soldiers were located. 12. The street separating the parts located directly next to the fortifications,
from the inside of the camp. 13. The street connecting the praetorium with the camp gates. 14. The gap between the defensive rampart surrounding the camp and the first barracks. 15. Camp gate
Insignia of the Pontificate. Bas-relief from the Saint-Germain Museum
Triumphal procession
Etruscan bireme. An Etruscan vase (located in the British Museum in London) is decorated with a picturesque representation of a bireme, which shows us what the ships of this ancient Italian seafaring people were like around the 6th century. BC e. Two rows of oars are clearly visible: an upper row with oarlocks on the gunwale or perhaps on the outrigger, and a lower row with oars emerging from ports in the hull, or with oarlocks along the gunwale hidden behind the outrigger, as suggested by the long crack in the vase. On the bow there is a ram and, what is especially interesting, a forecastle, which has never before been shown so long and high in other picturesque images. During the reconstruction, the nose was recreated similar to the noses of ancient Greek biremes of the same period; it was formed by the ends of longitudinal strips tied together
Roman warship. Bas-relief
Towers on ships
Trireme. Here is a ship with a solid combat deck and a “raven” on the bow. There are three rows of oars: the upper one has oval ports in the outrigger, while the lower two come out of round ports in the sides of the ship. The leather sleeves, intended to prevent sea water from penetrating through the holes for the lower oars, are not visible. On Roman triremes, the number of rowers in all teams was the same. In addition to the rowers, there were at least 10-12 sailors and 80-90 soldiers on board. Approximate dimensions: length - 18.3 ft (5.6 m), including 2 ft (0.6 m) for outriggers on each side,
draft - 3.2 ft (1 m)
Quadrirema. During excavations in the Athenian port, the remains of hangars were discovered where triremes were stored during the winter season. From the dimensions of the hangars it was concluded that the Greek triremes were approximately 114.8 feet (35 m) long and 16.4 feet (5 m) wide. For the Roman quadriremes, which were larger, it can be assumed that they were 131 feet (40 m) long and 32 feet (7 m) wide. The ship was supposed to accommodate 200 oarsmen plus 15-20 sailors and a hundred soldiers - this was the full crew. According to Polybius, the first quadrireme of the Roman fleet was a Carthaginian ship captured in 260 during the siege of Milazzo
Numidian horseman from the Punic Wars and Samnite of the 3rd century. BC e.
Ancient Germanic warrior
Swords of the Germans
Legionnaire of the 1st century BC e. - I century, centurion and legionary of the end of the I century. - beginning of the 2nd century
Organization of the Roman army in the middle of the 1st century. BC e.
Formation of the legion by cohorts
Civil war in Rome in 49-45. BC e.
Plan of the Basilica in Pompeii Plan of the Baths of Caracalla in Rome
Plan of the Pantheon in Rome
Plan of an ordinary Roman house
Order of battle of Caesar's legion
Roman road
Augustus depicted in the pose of Jupiter. Statue from Qom. First half of the 1st century
Octavia, sister of Octavian. Basalt
Tiberius. Marble
Nero. Marble. 60-68
Caligula. Marble. 37-41
Siege of the city by the Romans. I century BC e.
Plan of Rome. I-IV centuries
Colosseum in Rome. 19th century photograph
Rome. Forum Romanum. Reconstruction:!. Temple of Saturn. 2. Sacred Road. 3. Temple of Vespasian. 4. Rostra. 5. Arch of Septimius Severus. 6. Curia. 7. Basilica Emilia. 8. Basilica of Maxentius. 9. Temple of Antoninus and Faustina. 10. Colosseum. 11. Round temple of Romulus. 12. Column of Phokas
The Great Circus (Circus Maximus). Reconstruction
Trajan's Column at Trajan's Forum in Rome. 107-113
Roman house. Reconstruction. Relander.
Interior of a rich Roman's house Interior of a Roman house
Equestrian statue of Marcus Aurelius in Rome. Bronze. 161-180
Aurelian's Wall in Rome. 270-275 Arch of Constantine in Rome. 312-315
Amphitheater in Arles, France. I V. General form
Aqueduct near Nîmes, the so-called Garsky Bridge.
End of the 1st century BC e. - beginning of the 1st century
Bas-reliefs from Trajan's Column.
Trajan gives the order to besiege Sarmisegetusa (up). Decebalus shows submission
Plowman. Drawing from an antique gem
Blacksmith with pliers and a two-handed hammer. Stonemasons.
One hews stone
block, the other - a column. According to Virgil of the Vatican
Lictor, general (consul or propraetor), imaginifer.
Soldiers of the auxiliary troops of the Roman Empire. I century
Warriors of the Roman Empire. IV-V centuries
Soldiers of the Praetorian Guard
Kingdom of Pergamon in the 2nd century. BC e.
Parthian Kingdom
The conquest of Italy by Rome at the end of the 6th - mid-3rd centuries. BC e.
Italy subject to Rome. OK. mid-3rd century BC e.
Roman Mediterranean power in the middle of the 2nd century. BC e.
Second Punic War. 264-241 BC e.
Third Punic War. 149-146 BC e.
Battle of Lake Trasimene in 217 BC. e.
Battle of Cynoscephalae in 197 BC. e. Battle of Pydna in 168 BC e.
Macedonia and Greece in the 2nd century. BC e.
The campaign of the Roman army in Parthia and the battle of Carrhae in 53 BC. e.
Campaigns of the army of Spartacus in 73-71. BC e.
Roman siege works near Alesia
Roman siege of Alesia in 52 BC. e.
Scheme of the routes of Caesar's campaigns in Gaul
Roman Empire in the IV-V centuries. BC e. and tribal invasions
Roman Empire under Constantine (306-337)
3 Among the numerous reviews of literature on the problems of the death of the republic and the formation of the Principate, the most accessible to the Russian reader
2 Perhaps he had this nickname even before the Gauls, simply because he lived on the Capitol.
enlarged by Roman annalistics.
3 The tradition about the war with Pyrrhus is in a very bad state. It was preserved mainly by later or minor writers and is extremely
2 The right of the same person to hold the position of tribune of the people twice in a row was controversial. Although, as we have seen, there was a plebiscite of Genutius in 342 (not entirely reliable), which prohibited anyone from standing for the same position before the expiration of a 10-year term, but this rule was violated more than once in practice. In addition, the plebiscite of Genutius applied only to magistrates, and the tribunes of the people, strictly speaking, were not magistrates. Indeed, in
1 Tiberius Gracchus, XX.
make it possible to distinguish quite precisely the activities of both of these periods
1 In 59, Caesar married Calpurnia, with whom he lived happily until his death.
(until April).
1 In 355 he was proclaimed Caesar, and from 361 he ruled alone.
Sacrifice to Jupiter Capitolinus. Relief panel from the triumphal arch of Marcus Aurelius (presumably). Photo: Matthias Kabel
Triumph is both one of the most revered and least known Roman ceremonies. Mary Beard, author of Roman Triumph (2007), once went to great lengths to separate fact from fiction. But Maggie Popkin, in her book The Architecture of Roman Triumph, claims to be “the first critical study of the architecture of Roman triumph.” What was this “architecture”? The author argues that the buildings and structures along the route of the triumphal procession "were built in accordance with how the Romans performed, experienced and remembered triumphal ceremonies, and with what they considered the identity of their city."
Maggie L. Popkin. The Architecture of the Roman Triumph: Monuments, Memory and Identity. Cambridge University Press. 350 s. In English
This statement is true only if that same “triumphal route” existed in Ancient Rome. However, until recently, scientists argued that there was no permanent route. Thus, Peter Wiseman suggested that, despite there being certain “specific points” for each procession, commanders could connect them in any order. Beard points out that attempts to reconstruct the route have largely been based on a fragment from the work of the Jewish historian Josephus, describing the triumph of Vespasian and Titus in 71 AD. Although, apart from this source, there is no clarity here.
Popkin has a lot of interesting things in her descriptions of the monuments, but not all of them are convincing. For example, the researcher attaches great importance to the words of Josephus that the procession went “through the theaters” to give people a better chance to see it. She even suggests that the Colosseum was built on the triumphal route to provide a "theatrical stage" for Domitian's triumphs. Popkin interprets the passage from Propertius as a depiction of how “the people in the theaters rose to greet” the triumphants; in fact, this fragment refers to the early deceased successor of Emperor Augustus, Marcellus, who never staged triumphs.
The most obvious "triumphal monuments" are arches, and Popkin tries to use this fact in his argument, but, as Beard rightly argues, "some arches may have been erected along the processional route, while others certainly were not (and it is not always easy to determine which one falls into which category).” As for the arches, which Pliny the Elder calls the very first, it should be remembered that, according to legend, the consul Stercinius erected them after all hopes of triumph had been abandoned. A candidate for the title of “triumphal monument” would be the Arch of Septimius Severus on the Capitoline Hill, but there is no evidence that this emperor ever celebrated a triumph. At the same time, Popkin suggests that numerous monuments, in particular on the triumphal route, were erected during his reign in order to form a “false memory” of the emperor’s victories.