Nigeria on a map of Africa
(all pictures are clickable)

Geographical position

Nigeria is a state located in the central part of the African continent. It borders Benin, Niger, Chad and Cameroon; has access to the Gulf of Guinea, the length of the coastline is 900 km. Almost all types of relief are represented on the territory of the country: low plateaus predominate in the north, most of the south is occupied by the Primorsky Plain, and the central part lies on a rocky plateau. The area of ​​the state is 924 thousand km².

Most of Nigeria has an equatorial monsoon climate. With the onset of spring, almost the entire country is covered by a strip of rain. In the south, up to 4000 mm of precipitation falls per year, in the central part - from 1000 to 1500 mm, and the least in the northeast - about 500 mm. Average monthly temperatures range from +26 °C in January to +33 °C in July.

Flora and fauna

Once upon a time, a large territory of the state was covered with tropical rainforests, but systematic cutting down and burning of areas for crops has significantly reduced their area. Today, tall, multi-story forests remain mainly along the right bank of the lower reaches of the Niger River and in the Cross River valley. The most valuable species in these forests are considered to be kaya, sapele, iroko, opepe, agba and obeche, which produce high-quality ornamental and construction wood. In the savannas grow baobabs, doum palms, ceibu, and whitish acacias, which serve as food for livestock. Among the herbs, different types of so-called predominate. elephant grass. The coast of Lake Chad is covered with thickets of papyrus and reeds.

The country's fauna is very diverse. In the forests there are many brightly colored parrots, red-headed woodpeckers, and hoopoes. Scoters, pelicans, flamingos, and kingfishers settle along the rivers. African black kites predominate among birds of prey. There are vultures, hawks, secretary birds, and hornbills. In the Nigerian forests and savannas you can still find herds of large mammals: elephants, rhinoceroses, giraffes, as well as dik-dik dwarf antelopes, whose weight is no more than 3 kg. Wild buffalos and scaly anteaters live far from human settlements. Tropical forests are inhabited by monkeys: chimpanzees, gorillas, baboons, monkeys, lemurs.

The rivers and Lake Chad are home to hippos (including the pygmy) and crocodiles. The country is home to the sea cow, which is extinct in other areas of the planet.

State structure

Nigeria map

Currently, a military government is in power, although formally the head of the republic is the president. Nigeria is a member of the British Commonwealth. Administratively, the country is divided into 36 states and the Federal Capital District. The local currency is naira. The capital is the city of Abuja.

Population

In terms of population (181.5 million people), Nigeria ranks first on the African continent. The national composition includes more than 2,000 ethnic groups, each of which retains its own traditions, language and culture. The majority are from the Yoruba, Hausa and Ibu ethnic groups. The official language is English. Among the residents of the state, almost 50% are Muslims, 30% are Christians (including Catholics, Baptists, Evangelists, Adventists, etc.), about 20% adhere to traditional beliefs. At the same time, the popularity of the National Church of Nigeria, which preaches a new religion - Godianism, is growing.

Economy

Nigeria is an agricultural state with a rapidly developing oil industry. About half the population is engaged in farming, using mainly traditional farming methods. The dominant agricultural crops exported are cocoa, oil palm, peanuts, cotton, rubber, sugar cane, and cola. Sorghum, millet, rice, and root crops such as yams, sweet potatoes, cassava, cocoyam, and taro are cultivated. Pasture livestock farming is developed: zebu, kuri, sheep and goats are bred. Among the industrial sectors, the most developed are oil refining, metallurgical, mechanical engineering and chemical.

Folk crafts are common - weaving, weaving baskets and mats from raffia palm fibers, making wooden masks and figurines, and calabashes.

The ancestors of modern Nigerians lived on these lands for many millennia. The first settlements on the territory of the modern country date back to the Middle and Late Paleolithic. Starting from the middle of the 1st millennium BC. e. people in these places knew how to smelt metals, as evidenced by slag, remains of smelting furnaces, clay products, grains of cultivated plants discovered by archaeologists near the settlement of Nok, after which this culture was named.

In the first centuries A.D. e. On the territory of Nigeria there were state formations, the inhabitants of which were engaged in various crafts (weaving, leatherworking, dyeing), agriculture and animal husbandry. The largest states in the south were Oyo, Ife, Benin, in the north - Kanem, Bornu Kano, Katsina and Songhai. By the beginning of the 15th century. Europeans landed on the country's shores and engaged in the slave trade for several centuries. Ivory, palm oil, pepper and locally produced fabrics were exported. At the beginning of the 19th century. On the territory of the modern state, the Sokoto Sultanate was formed, which in 1914 was declared a British colony. The policy of oppression and exploitation of the indigenous population led to the growth of the national movement, the struggle for sovereignty, but independence Nigeria received only in 1960. Since then, the country has experienced several military coups.

Attractions

When entering, you must have a certificate indicating vaccination against yellow fever.

Lagos is one of the largest ports in Africa, where you can buy almost everything, and at a very reasonable price (especially if you know how to bargain).

Unique natural monument Nigeria - Joey Plateau. These are remnant rocks rising from the greenery of the jungle with flat tops and almost vertical slopes, eaten away by erosion. Since they consist of gray-colored rocks, the bright contrast with the greenery of the tropical forest that surrounds them is striking.

Nigeria photo

The content of the article

NIGERIA, Federal Republic of Nigeria. State in West Africa. The capital is Abuja (approx. 500 thousand people - 2003). Territory– 923.77 thousand sq. km. Administrative division– 36 states and the Federal Capital District. Population– 128.77 million people. (2005, evaluation). Official language- English. Religion– Islam, Christianity and traditional African beliefs. Currency unit– naira. National holiday– Independence Day (1960), October 1. Nigeria is a member of approx. 60 international organizations, incl. The UN since 1960, the Organization of African Unity (OAU) since 1963, and since 2002 its successor - the African Union (AU), the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM), the Economic Community of States West Africa(ECOWAS) since 1975, Organization of the Islamic Conference (OIC) since 1971, Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) and the Commonwealth (union of countries that were part of the British Empire).

Geographical location and boundaries. Continental State. It borders in the west with Benin, in the north with Niger, in the northeast with Chad, in the east and southeast with Cameroon, and in the south it is washed by the waters of the Gulf of Guinea of ​​the Atlantic Ocean. The length of the coastline is 853 km.

Nature.

Terrain and water resources.

Nigeria is located on a low plateau with an altitude of approx. 600 m above sea level The country's territory is divided into large blocks by the valleys of the Niger and Benue rivers and is separated from the ocean by a narrow belt of coastal swamps. The width of this belt usually does not exceed 16 km, with the exception of the Niger Delta, where it reaches 97 km. A complex network of lagoons and channels located behind a barrier of sandy beaches forms a system of protected shallow waterways through which small vessels can pass from the Benin border in the west to the Cameroon border in the east without entering the ocean. Further inland, the Nsukka-Okigwi escarpment rising above the Cross River valley, the Jos and Biu plateaus, and the Adamawa Mountains are clearly visible. The generally flat surface of the plateau, composed of crystalline rocks in the north and west of the country and sandstones in the east, is in many places dotted with island mountains (inselbergs), i.e. rocky outlier hills with steep slopes. In the northeast, the surface gradually decreases towards Lake Chad, the level of which is 245 m above sea level.

The main rivers of Nigeria are the Niger, from which the country takes its name, and its largest tributary, the Benue. The main tributaries of the Niger and Benue - Sokoto, Kaduna and Gongola, as well as rivers flowing into Lake Chad, begin on the Jos Plateau, which is the hydrographic center of Nigeria. Navigation on these and other rivers, such as the Imo and Cross, is limited due to rapids and waterfalls, as well as sharp seasonal fluctuations in water levels. In Niger, ship traffic is maintained all year round to the city of Onitsha (where a bridge was built across the river), and from June to March - to Lokoja. During the wet season, boats operate as far as Jebba. Along the Benue, steamships go as far as Yola, but navigation is carried out only for four months - from July to October.

Climate.

The climate is influenced by two air masses - equatorial sea air associated with moisture-carrying winds, and tropical continental air associated with the dry and dusty harmattan wind, which blows from the Sahara Desert. There are two seasons - wet (March - September), which in the south of the country is separated by a short dry interval in August, and dry (October - February). There is more precipitation in the south than in the north. The average annual precipitation on the coast is 1800–3800 mm, and on the northern edge of the country it is less than 25 mm. Sweltering heat and severe thunderstorms herald the beginning and end of the wet season, but between May and August, when most of the rainfall occurs, severe, short-lived thunderstorms give way to more persistent rainfall. Average temperatures are high and approximately the same in the north and south of the country. In the south, humidity is also high with constant heat, although temperatures rarely exceed 32 ° C, while in the north there are seasonal differences, and during the dry season there are significant daily temperature fluctuations. In the northeast, temperatures in the shade can reach 38° C. There are also frosts.

Soils and minerals.

Almost all soils in Nigeria are acidic. In a number of areas in the east of the country, intensive leaching of soils formed on sandstones led to the formation of the so-called. “acid sands”, which are easy to process but quickly deplete. The soils of the far north were formed from desert sands and are easily destroyed. They differ sharply from the fertile soils that formed on the heavy loams of many river floodplains, in the cocoa belt and in the Niger Delta. In some densely populated areas, intensive farming and grazing have caused soil erosion.

Vast areas of Nigeria are composed of sedimentary rocks enriched in iron. There are many iron ore deposits, but they are not being developed. The largest deposits are located in Mount Patti near Lokoja and in Sokoto. In the 1980s and 1990s, the country produced oil and natural gas in the Niger Delta and offshore, tin and columbite (niobium ore) on the Jos Plateau near Enugu, and limestone (for cement production) in Nkalagu, Abeokuta, Sokoto, Ukpilla and Calabar .

Other minerals - asbestos, bauxite, tungsten, graphite, precious stones (sapphires, topazes), gold, coal, kaolin (clay), columbite, manganese, tin, natural gas, lead, mica, uranium, phosphates, zinc, etc. .

Flora and fauna.

Mangrove and freshwater swamp forests dominate the coastline, but then give way to a belt of dense tropical forest, in which the main tree species are kaya (mahogany), Chlorophora high and Triplochitone durum. The oil palm grows wild in tropical rainforests; in densely populated areas, shrubby thickets of this palm have replaced the forest. In more northern areas, the forest thins out and is replaced by tall grass. This is the Guinean savannah, in which trees such as baobab, false locust and tamarind grow. More open savannas occur north of the line marking the northern limit of root crop production, while desert landscapes predominate in the far northeast. Acacia (a source of gum arabic) and mimosa are common there.

The area of ​​state forest reserves is 21 thousand square meters. km (out of a total tropical forest area of ​​133.7 thousand sq. km).

In the fall of 2005, the government promulgated a decree on the conservation of endangered plant species (there are about 400 of them).

The placement of animals depends on the vegetation. The southern swamps and forests are home to crocodiles, monkeys and snakes, while the north contains antelope (several species), camels, hyenas, and the occasional giraffe and lion. Other animals native to tropical forests and wet savannas are elephants, gazelles, gorillas and leopards. The rivers are home to numerous species of fish, crocodiles and hippos. The variety of birds is amazing, especially along the edges of the forests. African bustards, vultures, kites, hawks, snipes, quails, pigeons, ostriches and parakeets live here.

Population.

Nigeria is the largest country in terms of population on the African continent. It is one of the 10 most populated countries in the world. High population density is characteristic of the southeastern states. The average population density is 130.9 people. per 1 sq. km (2002). Its average annual growth is 2.37%. Birth rate – 40.65 per 1000 people, mortality – 17.18 per 1000 people. Infant mortality is 98.8 per 1000 births. 42.3% of the population are children under 14 years of age. Residents over 65 years of age – 3.1%. The average age of the population is 18.63 years. The fertility rate (average number of children born per woman) is 5.5. Life expectancy is 46.74 years (men – 46.21, women – 47.29). The purchasing power of the population is 1 thousand US dollars. (All indicators are given in estimates for 2005).

Nigeria is a multi-ethnic state. There are more than 250 nationalities and ethnic groups. The largest of them are Hausa-Fulani (29%), Yoruba (21%), Igbo (Ibo - 18%), Ijaw (10%), Ibibio (3.5%), Tiv (2.5%), Bini etc. Hausa-Fulani, Yoruba and Igbo make up approx. 70% of the population. The Hausa are the heirs of the ancient northern Nigerian civilizations (the early feudal states of Zaria, Kano, Katsina, etc.). Their language is the most widely spoken in West Africa. The Yoruba were among the first in Nigeria to develop ties with the West, which greatly influenced their culture and value system. Yoruba form the majority in the country's middle class as well as among educated Nigerians. Intensive processes of ethnic consolidation and integration continue. Counts approx. 400 local languages ​​and dialects, the most common languages ​​are Hausa, Yoruba, and Igbo. Given the ethnic diversity of the country's population, English continues to be the official language.

In con. In the 1990s, ethnic and religious tensions intensified in the country. In 1999, clashes took place between representatives of the Itsekiri, Urhobo and Ijaw ethnic groups, which resulted in the death of approximately. 200 people.

The southwestern states of the country are the most urbanized. The urban population is approx. 38% (2004). Large cities - Lagos (13 million people - 2002), Abeokuta, Zaria, Ibadan, Iwo, Ilesha, Ilorin, Kano, Ogbomosho, Onicha, Oshogbo, etc.

There are migrant workers from Niger in Nigeria. Nigerian refugees and labor migrants work in Gabon, Cameroon (about 4 million people) and Cote d'Ivoire. During the ethno-confessional conflicts in 2001–2002, associated primarily with the introduction of Sharia courts in the north of the country, they were displaced about 750 thousand Nigerians Since the beginning of the 2000s, Nigeria (along with the Democratic Republic of the Congo and Senegal) has been one of the first places in Africa in terms of the number of emigrants and refugees to Europe.

Religions.

OK. 50% of the country's population are Muslims, 40% are Christians (the majority are Protestants), approx. 10% of Nigerians adhere to traditional African beliefs (animalism, fetishism, cult of ancestors, forces of nature, etc.) - 2002.

The penetration of Islam began in the 12th century. AD during the period of existence of the centralized state of Kanem-Bornu (the territory of modern Northern Nigeria). Islam of both Sunni and Shiite denominations is widespread. Islam is practiced by the vast majority of modern Yoruba and Hausa-Fulani. Christianity began to spread in the beginning. 19th century Christians live primarily in the southern states. The majority of Ibibios, Igbos, Ijaws and Tivs are Christian adherents. The position of the Catholic Church is strongest among the population of the eastern part of the country. The religious situation in the country is characterized by competition between Islam and Christianity. The activities of both Muslim and Christian organizations sometimes go beyond purely religious interests and acquire political overtones. Thus, in October 2005 in Kano, the Islamic Movement of Nigeria organized a demonstration of Shiite Muslims in support of the call of Iranian President Mahmoud Ahmadinejad to “wipe Israel off the face of the earth.” There are a number of Christian African churches that arose on the basis of schismatic movements that opposed, in particular, the domination of the church hierarchy by foreign missionaries.

In the Yoruba system of traditional African beliefs, several cults are distinguished, incl. associated with the god of thunder Shango and Ogun - the god of iron and war. Ogun belongs to the most powerful and revered deities of the Yoruba pantheon. The cult of the warlike Ogun in modern Nigeria has transformed into the cult of the patron god of soldiers, blacksmiths, hunters, as well as the guardian of marriage and healthy offspring. In the city of Ile-Ife (Ondo State), festivities are held annually in honor of Ogun, in which not only adherents of traditional beliefs take part, but also Muslims and Christians from other states of Nigeria, as well as foreign guests.

GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS

State structure.

Federal presidential republic. There is a constitution in force, adopted on May 29, 1999. The head of state and commander-in-chief of the armed forces is the president, who is elected by direct universal elections (by secret ballot) for a 4-year term. The presidential candidate who receives at least 1/4 of the votes in at least 2/3 of the states and the Abuja metropolitan area wins the election. The President can be elected to this post no more than two times. The vice president is appointed by the president from among the members of the political party from which he ran. Legislative power is exercised by a bicameral parliament (National Assembly), which consists of the House of Representatives and the Senate. The 360 ​​members of the House of Representatives are elected by universal direct and secret elections. The Senate, consisting of 109 senators (3 senators from each of the 36 states and 1 senator from the capital district), is elected by popular vote. The work of the House of Representatives is led by its chairman, and the Senate by the speaker. The term of office of both chambers of the National Assembly is 4 years.

The President is Obasanjo Olusegun. Elected on April 19, 2003. Previously served as president in 1976, and was also elected head of state in 1999.

Vice President – ​​Atiku Abubakar.

State flag.

A rectangular panel consisting of three vertical stripes of the same size - two green and one (between them) white stripe.

Administrative device.

Since 1996, the country has been divided into 36 states and the Federal Capital District of Abuja (created in 1979, the capital of the state was transferred to Abuja in December 1991 from Lagos). States – Abia, Adamawa, Akwa Ibom, Anambra, Bayelsa, Bauchi, Benue, Borno, Delta, Jigawa, Gombe, Zamfara, Imo, Yobe, Kaduna, Kano, Katsina, Kwara, Kebbi, Kogi, Cross River, Lagos, Nasarawa , Niger, Ogun, Oyo, Ondo, Osun, Plateau, Rivers, Sokoto, Taraba, Ebonyi, Edo, Ekiti and Enugu. The states are headed by governors who are elected for a 4-year term, subject to receiving at least 25% of the votes in at least 2/3 of the local government districts. By law, state governors have immunity from national justice authorities.

Judicial system.

There are the Supreme Court, the Federal Court of Appeal, the Federal Court of First Instance, as well as state trial courts. In some states (mainly in the north of the country) there are Sharia or ordinary courts of appeal, which hear cases related to Islamic law or traditional law (chieftain's courts), respectively.

Armed forces and defense.

Nigeria's national armed forces are one of the largest in Africa and the largest in sub-Saharan Africa. In 2002 they numbered 78.5 thousand people. (ground forces - 62 thousand people, air force - 9.5 thousand people, naval forces - 7 thousand people). Military service is carried out on a voluntary basis; men from the age of 18 are conscripted. Nigerian military units form the backbone of ECOMOG, the peacekeeping force for conflict resolution in West Africa created within ECOWAS. Nigeria was among the African countries that, according to the decision of the US Department of Defense, adopted in July 2005, will receive assistance in training military personnel. Defense expenditures in 2004 amounted to $544.6 million (0.8% of GDP).

Foreign policy.

Aimed at strengthening the country's authority in the international community after its isolation due to the long period of military dictatorship. The basis of foreign policy is the policy of non-alignment. The main direction of the Obasanjo government's foreign policy is to strengthen friendly partnerships with African states. President Obasanjo became one of the four authors of the NEPAD (New Partnership for African Development) program. Nigeria is an active member of the Niger River Commission. Good neighborly relations are developing with neighboring countries, primarily with Benin and Niger. (In the summer of 2005, Nigeria sent 1 thousand tons of grain to Niger, which began to famine due to prolonged drought and locust invasion). Cooperation is developing with the Republic of Sao Tome and Principe, with which it has a joint oil production zone. However, in 1994–1997 there were military clashes with Cameroon due to disputes over the ownership of the oil-rich Bakassi Peninsula.

Cooperation has been established with China. With his technical assistance, a thermal power plant was built in Egbina. In the beginning. In the 2000s, agreements on cooperation in the field of oil production were signed between the countries. In January 2006, China National Offshore Petroleum Corporation and the Nigerian oil company South Atlantic signed an agreement on the joint exploitation of Nigeria's offshore oil resources in the Niger Delta region.

Nigeria (along with South Africa) is Britain's main foreign policy partner on the African continent. Relations between the countries deteriorated after General S. Abacha came to power (1993), who annulled the results of the presidential elections. The active actions of official London led to the suspension of Nigeria's membership in the Commonwealth in 1995, as well as the introduction of EU trade sanctions against it. Relations with the UK and the EU were normalized in 1999 after Nigeria returned to civilian rule (President Obasanjo's inauguration ceremony was attended by Prince Charles and Deputy Foreign Secretary T. Lloyd). In the same year, the country's membership in the Commonwealth was restored. In 2000, Great Britain allocated 12 million pounds sterling to support democratic reforms in Nigeria. In February 2002, T. Blair visited Nigeria.

Nigeria is an active member of the UN. Supporting the process of reforming this organization, the country advocates giving Africa two seats of permanent membership in the updated UN Security Council (while claiming one of them, competing with Egypt, South Africa, Angola, Kenya, Libya and Senegal).

Diplomatic relations between the USSR and Nigeria were established on November 25, 1960. The Soviet Union provided Nigeria with military and material assistance during the civil war of 1967–1970. The result of bilateral cooperation in the field of trade and economic relations was the construction of two oil pipeline systems with a total length of more than 900 km, and the construction of a metallurgical plant in the city of Ajaokuta. In 1971–1980, Soviet doctors worked in the country.

In December 1991, Nigeria recognized the Russian Federation as the legal successor of the USSR. A system of regular exchanges of messages at the highest level has been established. In March 2001, President Obasanjo paid an official visit to Moscow. In 1999, a bilateral Agreement on cooperation in the fight against illicit trafficking in psychotropic substances and narcotic drugs was signed. In May 1998, the Nigerian-Russian Chamber of Commerce was created, which included approx. 160 companies and businessmen. There are 4 companies with Russian participation in the country (2004). In February 2001, a Russian-Nigerian commission was established to study ways to develop joint military-technical cooperation. On September 19–23, 2005, as part of the development of bilateral trade cooperation, an exhibition of Nigerian goods was held in Moscow.

Bilateral cooperation has developed and continues to develop especially actively in the field of training national personnel for Nigeria, as well as in the field of science and culture. Since 1975, a bilateral Russian-Nigerian agreement on the equivalence of diplomas and scientific degrees has been in force. Over the years of cooperation in the USSR/RF higher education 10 thousand Nigerians received. In 2001–2003, the Program of Bilateral Cultural and Scientific Cooperation was successfully implemented. ITAR-TASS has a representative office in Lagos. Exchanges are carried out through the Russian Academy of Sciences; In November 2005, a delegation of scientists from the Institute of African Studies of the Russian Academy of Sciences visited Nigeria.

In the spring of 2004, an incident arose related to the case of 12 Russian sailors from the crew of the African Pride tanker, which sailed under the Panamanian flag, but belonged to the Greek company Azora Service. The tanker was detained 31 miles off the Nigerian coast on suspicion of transporting smuggled oil. After lengthy legal proceedings and approvals at the highest level, Russian sailors are finally ready. 2005 were released and returned to their homeland.

Political organizations.

A multi-party system has developed in the country (about 30 political parties are registered – 2003). The most influential of them:

– « People's Democratic Party», NDP(People's Democratic Party, PDP), chairman - Ogbe Audu (Audu Ogbeh), national secretary - Nwodo Okwesilieze (Okwesilieze Nwodo). The ruling party of President Obasanjo, created on August 26, 1998;

– « All-Nigerian folk the consignment», GNP(All Nigeria People's Party, ANPP), leader - Garba Ali Yusuf (Yusuf Garbah Ali). Party founded October 19, 1998;

– « Union for Democracy», SD(Alliance for Democracy, AD), chaired by Ahmed Abdulkadir. Party created October 19, 1998.

Trade union associations. "Nigerian Labor Congress", NLC (Nigerian Labor Congress, NLC). It is the single central trade union organization of the country. Created in 1978, it unites 29 industry trade unions. The Chairman is Oshiomhole Adams.

ECONOMY

Nigeria belongs to the group of poorest countries in the world. The basis of the economy is the oil industry (85% of foreign exchange earnings - 2005). There is a significant scale of “shadow” business. OK. 60% of the population is below the poverty line. GDP per capita in 2005 was $390 (according to World Bank (WB) data).

Labor resources.

In 2005, the country's economically active population was 57.21 million people (in 2001 – about 46.45 million people).

Agriculture.

The share of the agricultural sector in GDP is 26.8% (2005). 31.29% of land is cultivated (2001). From Wednesday Since the 1980s, there has been a decline in agricultural production; the agricultural sector does not provide the country's population with food in full. The stagnation of the sector was largely contributed to by droughts, migration to the city and the reorientation of part of the population towards imported food products as a result of increased income from oil sales. The main export crops are cocoa beans, peanuts, soybeans, rubber, oil palm, sugar cane and cotton. Nigeria is one of the main producers of peanuts, cocoa beans and soybeans on the African continent. The constant demand for Nigerian cocoa (the country ranks 4th in the world in its production) is explained by its high taste. Most farms are focused on growing cocoa beans; Falling world cocoa prices usually lead to sharp declines in income and impoverishment in rural areas. Pineapples, bananas, legumes, potatoes, cassava, corn, mangoes, papaya, millet, rice, sorghum, tobacco, tomatoes, citrus fruits and yams are also grown. Livestock farming (breeding camels, goats, cattle, horses, sheep, donkeys and pigs), due to the spread of tsetse flies throughout most of the country, develops mainly in the northern states. Poultry farming is also developing. In forestry, timber is harvested (including valuable tropical varieties) and lumber is produced. Fishing is carried out in the waters of the Gulf of Guinea, rivers and the island of Chad. The average annual catch of fish and seafood is approx. 250 thousand tons

Industry.

Its share in GDP is 48.8% (2005). The mining sector is developed. The basis is the oil industry. Nigeria ranks 8th in oil production in the world (2.5 million barrels per day) and 1st in Africa. In March 2005, Nigeria's oil reserves amounted to 35 million barrels. In January 2006, Special Adviser to the President of Nigeria on the Oil Industry, Edmond Daukuru, became Chairman of OPEC. Oil exploration and production is carried out by Nigerian and foreign oil companies. According to experts, Nigerian oil is of high quality, which determines the demand for it on the world market. Although one of the leading oil-producing countries in the world, Nigeria nevertheless faces fuel shortages. On Wednesday In 2005, the level of daily consumption of petroleum products in the country amounted to 14 million liters of oil. 50% of the required fuel has to be imported, since the total capacity of the country's oil refineries is only approx. 7 million liters of oil per day. Underway industrial production natural gas (Nigeria ranks 10th in the world in terms of its reserves). Coal, bauxite, iron ore, gold, tin, gypsum and columbite are also mined. In 2005, the development of deposits of semi-precious stones (aquamarines, etc.) began in Oyo State (southwest of the country).

Manufacturing industries - metallurgy, oil refining (4 plants), liquefied gas production (the 5th plant was put into operation in January 2006), automobile assembly (cars, trucks, tractors, television and radio equipment), food processing (palm oil production, sugar, flour, beer, canned food, etc.) tobacco, textile and chemical industries, as well as construction.

International trade.

In terms of foreign trade turnover, Nigeria occupies one of the leading places on the African continent. Foreign trade is one of the main sources of foreign exchange earnings in the country's economy. The volume of exports is twice the volume of imports: in 2005, exports (in US dollars) amounted to 52.16 billion, imports - 25.95 billion. The basis of exports (95%) is oil; In terms of its export volume in 2005, Nigeria ranked 6th in the world. Natural gas, cocoa and rubber are also exported. The main export partners are the USA (47.4%), Brazil (10.7%) and Spain (7.1%) - 2004. The main imports are petroleum products, machinery, chemical products, vehicles, industrial goods, food products and live cattle. The main import partners are China (9.4%), USA (8.4%), Great Britain (7.8%), the Netherlands (5.9%), France (5.4%), Germany (4.8 %) and Italy (4%) – 2004. Official data on foreign trade turnover are not complete, because there is a problem of smuggling trade operations with neighboring countries.

Energy.

The country's energy system is underdeveloped; demand for electricity is noticeably ahead of supply. Electricity is provided approx. 40% of the population, the rest use wood and petroleum products as fuel. Electricity is generated at thermal power plants (in Egbina (Lagos State), Ogbia (Kogi State), Sapele (Delta State), etc.) powered by oil, natural gas or coal, as well as hydroelectric power stations (the largest is Kainji on the Niger River ). In 2000, 64% of electricity was generated by thermal power plants. The Energy Research Center (Zaria) is working on the possible use of nuclear energy in the country. Electricity production in 2003 amounted to 15.59 billion kilowatt-hours, exports - 40 million kilowatt-hours. There are periodic problems in the power system, which leads to power outages or interruptions in supply to consumers. For this reason, almost every business and many residential buildings have their own generators.

Transport.

In terms of transport availability and density of the road network, Nigeria occupies one of the leading places in Tropical Africa. Air and sea communications connect it with many countries of the world. The main mode of transport is road, which provides approx. 95% of freight and passenger traffic. The first roads were laid in the beginning. 20th century mainly on the site of traditional trade routes. The total length of roads is 193.2 thousand km (59.9 thousand km of roads are paved, 1194 km of them are expressways) – 2001. The country has practically no road safety system, and there is also a very simplified procedure for obtaining driver's licenses (4.32 million were issued in 1998–2004). As a result, approx. 30 thousand road accidents in which from 8 to 10 thousand people die. In the summer of 2005, in the city of Kano (north of the country), where the Muslim population predominates, separate transportation of male and female passengers was introduced on public transport (some mixed-type vehicles were retained for Christians). The first railway - Lagos - Abeokuta - was built in 1895-1898. The total length of railways (mainly narrow gauge) is 3557 km (2004). The average maximum speed by rail is 65 km/h. OK. 50% of the locomotive fleet has exceeded its optimal service life and needs to be replaced. In con. In the 1990s, China provided financial assistance for the reconstruction of railways.

The country has a well-developed maritime transport system, which includes the Niger Delta port complex (Warri, Koko and Sapele), ports in Calabar, Lagos (Tin Can and Apapa), Onne and Port Harcourt. Bonny and Burutu have dedicated seaports for oil shipments. The merchant fleet consists of 303 ships, incl. 29 oil tankers and 4 tankers designed to transport chemical products (2002). The length of river waterways (shipping along the Benue, Cross, Niger rivers, as well as along the island of Chad and along the coast of the Gulf of Guinea) is 8.6 thousand km (2004). Mainly carried out by waterways freight transportation. Air transport is developing intensively. There are 70 airports and runways (36 of them are paved) - 2005. International airports are located in the cities of Lagos (Murtala Muhammad), Abuja, Calabar, Kano and Port Harcourt. There is one specialized port for helicopters. The pipeline system, established in 1958, is well developed: an oil pipeline (3638 km), a gas pipeline (1896 km), as well as a pipeline for pumping gas condensate (105 km) and refined petroleum products (3626 km) - 2004.

Finance and credit.

The currency is the Nigerian Naira (NGN), divided into 100 kobos. In October 2005, a new 1 thousand naira banknote was issued. In December 2005, the national currency exchange rate was: 1 USD = 132.59 NGN. There are more than 90 merchant, industrial and commercial banks operating in Nigeria.

Tourism.

Foreign tourists are attracted by the beauty of natural landscapes, historical and architectural monuments, rich museum collections and the original culture of local peoples. Best time for holidays in Nigeria - December-March. A yellow fever vaccination is required. In addition to guests from African countries (mainly from Niger, Benin, Ghana and Cameroon), the country is visited by the French, Germans, Italians, etc. In 2001, 1.75 million foreign tourists visited Nigeria.

Sights - National Museum (Lagos, founded in 1957), Old City, Emir's Palace, Kurmi Market and Gidan Makama Museum in Kano, national park Yankari (east of Jos), considered one of the best nature reserves in West Africa, government buildings in Abuja, etc. In 2005 on the List world heritage UNESCO has listed a dense, untouched forest called “Ogun”, located on the outskirts of Oshogbo (south of the country). The Yoruba people consider this forest sacred because... it contains sculptures and artistic works dedicated to the god Ogun and other deities.

SOCIETY AND CULTURE

Education.

The first missionary schools opened in the southern regions of the country in the 1830s. On Wednesday In the 1950s, the adult illiteracy rate was 90%.

Since 1992, 6 years of primary education have been compulsory, which children receive at the age of six. Primary school education is free. Secondary education (6 years) begins at the age of 12, takes place in two stages of 3 years each (the so-called three-year secondary and three-year higher secondary education). There are private schools, their work is regulated by government agencies. There are 56 teachers' colleges and 26 polytechnics. According to data released by the Nigerian Ministry of Finance in September 2005, approximately 8 million school-age children.

The higher education system includes 33 universities; studies (in English) last for 4 years. Many of the universities have the status of federal universities. The oldest is the University of Ibadan (Ibadan in Oyo State), founded as a university college in 1948, received university status in 1962. The largest universities:

– Lagos State University (Apapa – a suburb of Lagos, created in 1983). 553 teachers worked at 6 faculties and 36.7 thousand students studied;

– University of Lagos (Lagos, founded in 1961). There are 900 teachers and 35.1 thousand students at 8 faculties;

– Ahmadu Bello University (Zaria, Kaduna State, established in 1962). There are 2064 teachers and 29.8 thousand students at 12 faculties;

– University of Nigeria (Nsukka, Enugu State, founded in 1960). There are 1 thousand teachers and 23.8 thousand students at 14 faculties;

– University of Benin (Benin City, Edo State, created in 1970). There are 848 teachers and 22.9 thousand students in 10 faculties;

– University of Ibadan. There are 1077 teachers and 20.4 thousand students at 12 faculties;

– Ambrosie Alli University (Ekpoma, Edo State, founded in 1981). There are 454 teachers and 16 thousand students in 10 faculties;

– University in Ilorin (Kwara State, established in 1975). There are 572 teachers and 15 thousand students at 8 faculties. (Data for 2002).

The listed universities have large libraries. The collections of the National Library of Nigeria (Lagos, established in 1964) contain 158 thousand volumes. Nigerians also receive higher education abroad, mainly in the UK and the USA. The Russian Federation annually allocates 50 scholarships for undergraduate and graduate students from Nigeria; in 2004, 289 Nigerians studied at Russian universities. Nigeria's education system is financed primarily from the government budget. In 2001, 7.5% of budget funds were allocated for education needs. The Nigerian Academy of Sciences has been operating since 1977, with about a hundred active members. There are more than 20 research institutes and scientific centers (including at universities) conducting research in the field of agronomy, veterinary medicine, geology, medicine, energy, etc. In 2003, 68% of the population were literate (75.7% of men and 60.6 % women).

Healthcare.

Architecture.

Vernacular houses in different parts of Nigeria differ in architectural form and building materials used. In the north of the country they have a rectangular shape, the walls are made of adobe, and the roof is flat. In the southern, southwestern and southeastern states, located in the tropical forest zone, huts are built rectangular in plan, with windows covered with carved shutters. The walls are made of clay or wattle; palm leaves or straw are used as roofing material for the gable roof. The Yoruba and Igbo place their residential and outbuildings around the perimeter of a rectangular courtyard, which is surrounded by galleries of carved wooden pillars. In the central states, vernacular dwellings are generally circular in shape. The walls are also made of clay, and the conical thatched roof is decorated with geometric relief patterns and ceramic plates.

Special layer modern architecture- construction of mosques. Houses in cities are built from brick, reinforced concrete structures and glass. Business districts of cities are built up with multi-storey buildings. Construction work is often carried out without complying with standards, as well as using low-quality materials. As a result, building collapses occur.

Fine arts and crafts.

The origin of fine art on the territory of modern Nigeria dates back to the 1st millennium BC. (terracotta sculpture from the Nok culture). The sculpture of the Yoruba people is one of the world's masterpieces. She is an important part of West African art. During archaeological excavations started in 1938 on the territory ancient state Ife, a number of terracotta heads and figurines were found. The oldest finds are over 800 years old. Bronze products from the Ife culture are also world famous (statues of rulers, striking in their naturalism, multi-figure compositions, ritual vessels, etc.) and bronze from Benin (portraits of members of the royal family, relief plates with images of people and animals, etc.). The various wooden masks of the Igbo people are original.

Professional fine art has been developing since the middle. 1950s In its formation on local traditions with the use of modern European trends, an important role was played by sculptors I. Aye, O. Idah, F. O. Idehen, Felix Idubor, D. Nwoko, E. O. Emokpe and Ben Enwonwu, as well as artists J. Akolo, Y. Grillo, Rufus Ogundele, O. O. Ozadebe, W. Egonu, A. Ekong, Ben Enwonwu. A. Onabolu is considered the founder of the national school of painting. The work of artists Kolade Oshinowo and Rufus Ogundele has received international recognition. Contemporary Nigerian artists (Abiodun Olaku, K.K. Karunwi) and sculptors (Alli Olayinka, Olabisi Onawale Fakiye, Patrick Agose) have exhibited their works abroad, including in USA. Many of them took part in the exhibition of contemporary Nigerian artists, sculptors and photographers, held in 1995 in Geneva, as well as in the Africa 95 festival of African art, held the same year in the UK.

Almost all universities in Nigeria have established arts faculties that train national cadres of artists, graphic artists, sculptors and designers. There are numerous exhibition centers and art galleries. In Lagos alone there are more than 70 of them, incl. Aaragon Gallery, Art and Objects Gallery, Didi Museum, etc. The National Gallery of Modern Art operates in Lagos at the National Theater. Cultural centers operating in Nigeria from the UK, Germany, Russia (in 1995–1998, the center helped organize about 30 personal and collective exhibitions), the USA and France take part in organizing the exhibitions.

The National Museum of Benin (Benin City, founded in 1973) has rich collections of African traditional and contemporary art, as well as national museums, located in the cities of Lagos, Kano (1959), Ife (1971), Kaduna (1975), Jos (1982), etc. Objects of ancient art of Nigeria are presented in exhibitions and private collections of many museums around the world, incl. Museum of Anthropology and Ethnography (Kunstkamera) in St. Petersburg.

Crafts and artistic crafts are well developed - wood carving (production of various household items, decorated with ornaments, as well as sculptural images of people and animals; wooden sculpture by Yoruba masters stands out), pottery (products of craftsmen from Ilorin are especially popular), jewelry making (production of gold and silver jewelry with embossing), weaving and batik (especially developed among the Yoruba), embroidery (multicolor), weaving baskets and mats from reeds and straw, making ornamented dishes from colored glass, vessels from dried pumpkins (“calabashes”) , as well as leather goods (belts, bags, saddles, shoes and pillows). The traditions of bronze casting and ivory carving have been preserved. Many products are decorated with beads and beads. Wooden fans with burnt patterns or covered with leather decorated with appliqué are popular among tourists.

Literature.

Based on the rich traditions of oral creativity (myths, songs, proverbs and fairy tales) of local peoples. Modern literature develops in English and the languages ​​of the Yoruba, Hausa, Igbo, etc. peoples. Literary records of folklore appeared in the 1940s. One of the first literary works is the story of Amos Tutuola A palm wine drinker and his deceased cupbearer in the city of the dead(in the literature there is also an abbreviated title for the story - Drunkard), published in London in 1952. Novel by Cyprian Ekwensi City people(1954) is considered one of the first major national works in prose.

Nigerian writer, poet, novelist, playwright and master of political polemics, Wole Soyinka is one of the most prominent representatives of modern African literature. He is the Nobel Prize laureate in literature (1986), the first African laureate. His book Interpreters, published in 1990, also aroused the interest of Nigerian and foreign readers.

The novelist Chinua Achebe has been working fruitfully for more than 40 years. His first novel is And destruction came... (1958) - became a classic and brought him worldwide fame. Achebe's novels have been translated into more than 30 languages, and he has been nominated for the Nobel Prize several times. In June 2007, Chinua Achebe won the International Booker literary prize.

Ben Okri, who was awarded the British Booker Literary Prize for 1991, received worldwide recognition. Other writers are Clement Agunwa, T.M. Aluko, Nkema Nwankwo, Flora Nwapa, Onuora Nzekwu, Ifeoma Okoye, Sonala Olumense, Ken Saro-Wiwa. The novel was published in 2004 Purple hibiscus young writer Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie (born 1977), which addresses the problems of modern Nigerian society and Christianity. The works of contemporary writer and playwright Tolu Ajayi are popular.

Poetry has been evolving since the 1940s. The founders of national poetry - Christopher Okigbo, V. Soyinka (poetry collections Ogun Abibiman (1976), Mandela Land and other poems(1988)) and J.P. Clark. Other poets are B. N. Azikiwe, Gabriel Okara.

Music.

The national musical culture is diverse and was formed as a result of the interaction of traditions of numerous peoples. Professional musical art developed during the existence of the medieval states of Hausa, Yoruba, and others. The palace orchestras of the Yoruba rulers numbered up to 200 musicians. There was a special “drum language” (these instruments were considered symbols of supreme power), in which musicians addressed the people on behalf of the rulers. The influence of Arab culture is evidenced by the presence of some musical instruments. Spread in the 19th century. Christianity contributed to the extinction of cult music, which was one of the main types of local musical culture. European church music has had a significant influence on the vocal traditions and musical instrumentation of Nigeria. In turn, the music brought by Yoruba slaves to the New World influenced the culture of Brazil and some Caribbean countries.

In the musical instrumentation of Nigeria, a variety of drums occupy a central place, among them the 2-membrane cylindrical hourglass drums and the 1-membrane drums (worn around the neck while playing) stand out. Algaita (a type of trumpet), tambourines, lutes, ngedegwu (xylophone), oja (flute), saxophones, oboye flutes, zithers, etc. are also common.

There is its own school of composition; famous composers - S. Akpabot, A. Bankole, T. Oyelana, F. Sowande, A. Yuba. In Nigeria, musical culture is inextricably linked with theater. Composer A. Fiberesima - author of the first Nigerian opera Orukoro. Folk musical traditions are being studied at Ibadan, Lagos and other universities in the country. The National Ensemble of Nigeria in 1960–1980 successfully performed on tours in many countries of Africa, Europe and America. The National Arts Festival has been held since 1970. In 1977, the 2nd World Festival of Negro Art was held in Lagos (called FESMAN, held on the initiative of Senegal since 1966).

From Wednesday In the 1980s, the work of some Nigerian musicians, most notably King Sani Ade, who performs juju music, began to influence world popular music. The art of Nigerian musicians and theater groups was widely represented (1/4 of the exhibits and participants) at the Africa 95 African Art Festival, held in the UK in 1995.

In 2001, Nigerian musician Femi Kuti was awarded the international music prize “Kora” (the name of a West African stringed musical instrument), which is awarded to performers from Africa and representatives of the African diaspora in Europe, the United States and the Caribbean.

Some famous Western artists have Nigerian roots. Among them is the British singer Sade (real name Helen Folsade Adu), whose father is a Nigerian from the Yoruba people. In 2004, among the stars of world pop music, she took part in a large concert in support of African refugees from Sudan and Chad, which took place in London at the famous Royal Albert Hall. Nigerian by birth, the famous contemporary singer from Great Britain Tunde Bayeu is the ex-vocalist of the famous British duo called Lighthouse Family. In 2005, he released his first solo album, named after him. Performs songs in soul style.

Nigerian composer Tunde Yegede is taking part in a continental project to create the first African opera, called Opera of the Sahel (he is co-writing the music with composers from Senegal, Guinea-Bissau and Comoros). Completion of work on the music for the opera is planned for June 2006.

Theater.

Modern national theatrical art is formed on the basis of rich traditional creativity. Elements of theater were present in numerous rites and rituals that were performed on various holidays. Modern theater began to take shape in the middle. 19th century – theater groups were created at Christian missions and schools. On Wednesday In the 1940s, traveling musical and theatrical groups were created in Lagos, led by Hubert Ogunde and Kola Ogunmola. In the beginning. In the 1960s, the Duro Ladipo National Theater was created in Oshogbo (named after its creator - an actor, director and playwright).

Amateur development drama theater is associated with the University of Ibadan, where the Dramatic Society was created under the leadership of director J. Axworthy, invited from Great Britain. The University of Ibadan was the first African university to introduce a course in theater arts (in 1962). The name of the writer Wole Soyinka is closely associated with the theater. Upon returning to the country (while living in London, he was an actor and director of the London Royal Court Theatre) he created the theater groups “Masks 1960” and “Orizun Repeaters”, and also directed the drama school at the University of Ibadan. Author and director of plays Lion and pearl, Swamp Dwellers, Dance of the forest, Game of Giants and others. Some of Soyinka's plays entered the repertoire of English theaters. Since the 1990s, the plays of contemporary playwright Tolu Ajayi have been popular.

Cinema.

Several were filmed in the 1940s documentaries. The 1960s saw the development primarily of documentaries and television adaptations of theatrical plays. First full-length feature film Two people and a goat filmed by director G. Jones in 1966. Nigerian directors - O. Balogun (one of the largest in the country), F. Spida, E. Ugboma, A. Khalila and others. The film college created in 1982 became the first educational institution of this type in Tropical Africa . The country's filmmakers participated in the international film festival in Tashkent.

Press, radio broadcasting, television and Internet.

The first Nigerian newspapers began to be published in Lagos in the 1830s. Published in English:

– official government bulletin “Gazette”;

– daily government newspaper “New Nigerian”, daily newspapers “The Guardian”, “Daily Sketch”, “Daily Times” (Daily Times), Evening Times, Nigerian Tribune, Nigerian Observer ), “National Concord” and “The Punch”;

– weekly economic newspaper “Business Times” (Business Times);

– Sunday government newspaper “Sunday New Nigerian”, Sunday newspapers “Sunday Observer”, “Sunday Punch” , “Sunday Sketch” (Sunday Sketch) and “Sunday Times” (Sunday Time);

– the weekly newspaper “Irohin Yoruba” (News of the Yoruba People) is published in the Yoruba language.

Many universities in the country publish their own journals. In Nigeria there are approx. 40 publishing houses. Since 1965, the Nigerian Publishers Association has been operating in Ibadan.

The government news agency “News Agency of Nigeria”, NAN (New Agency of Nigeria, NAN) has been operating since 1978 and is located in Abuja. The government broadcasting service Federal Radio Corporation of Nigeria (FRCN) was created in 1978 and is located in Abuja. Television has been working since the beginning. 1960s The government's Nigerian Television Authority (NTA) has been operating in Lagos since 1976. There are 32 television stations. Radio broadcasts are broadcast in English and 12 local languages. Nigeria was one of 12 African states (along with Angola, Burkina Faso, Gambia, DRC, Cape Verde, Mauritania, Namibia, Sao Tome and Principe, Swaziland, Togo and Chad) participating in the project to connect the African continent to the Internet, partially financed by the United Nations Development Program (UNDP). In 2003, there were 750 thousand Internet users in Nigeria.

STORY

Nigeria since ancient times.

Many of the modern peoples of Nigeria migrated to its territory from the north 4 thousand years ago. Around 2000 BC. the majority of the autochthonous population adopted some farming and animal domestication skills from the newcomers. The transition to settled agriculture entailed the creation of permanent settlements that served as protection from external enemies. It was in such villages that the creators of the city dating back to 2000 BC lived. Nok culture. Numerous evidence discovered in the North allows us to conclude that the people of the Nok culture were familiar with the technology of smelting and processing tin and iron. These skills allowed them not only to revolutionize agricultural production, but also to begin making weapons with which they conquered territories and created larger political entities.

State formations of the savannah zone.

The first large centralized state on the territory of Northern Nigeria was Kanem-Bornu, the emergence of which dates back to the end of the 8th century. AD It was originally located outside of modern Nigeria, north of Lake. Chad, but then quickly expanded its borders south into Bornu territory. By the 13th century. Kanem-Bornu was known in Egypt, Tunisia and Fezzan. The basis of the state's wealth was its intermediary role in the trans-Saharan trade in salt, beads, textiles, swords, horses and European goods from North Africa, which were exchanged for ivory and slaves. To the west, the states of Katsina and Kano, competitors of Kanem-Bornu in the trans-Saharan trade, were the most significant of the seven Hausa states that emerged in different time at the beginning of the 2nd millennium AD. Other Hausa states were Daura, Gobir, Rano, Biram and Zaria, the latter being a major supplier of slaves. Despite the legend of descent from the same ancestor and the similarity of cultural traditions, the Hausa states developed autonomously and sometimes even fought with each other. Kano and most of the eastern Hausan lands were tributaries of Kanema-Bornu.

Both Kanem-Bornu and the Hausa states had a well-functioning system of government, the population regularly paid taxes, and there was a standing army, the striking force of which was cavalry. By the 15th century Islam, brought here through the desert by Muslim traders, strengthened in the states of this region. Since the 12th century. all the Mai, the rulers of Bornu, were Muslims. The influence of Islam in the Hausa states affected the system of government and justice, and also contributed to the creation of a Muslim elite.

In the first two decades of the 16th century. the great Songhai Empire, which sought to establish control over all the Hausa states, made Kano and Katsina its tributaries. In 1516–1517, the Songhai vassal Kanta, the ruler of Kebbi, after attacking the state of Air, declared himself a sovereign ruler and subjugated all the Hausa lands. This caused Kanta's conflict with the Bornu ruler, and he defeated the Bornu army twice. After Kanta's death in 1526, the Hausa alliance collapsed, and the threat to Bornu's western borders disappeared.

Around 1483, after two centuries of internal strife, the capital of Kanema-Bornu was moved to Ngazargama in what is now Nigeria. In the 16th century Kanem-Bornu strengthened its position and after the collapse of the Songhai Empire as a result of the invasion of Moroccan troops in 1591, it became the most powerful state in Western Sudan. The apogee of the development of this state came during the reign of Mai Idris Aluma (d. 1617), known as an Islamic reformer and a skilled military leader.

The disunity of the Hausa states continued throughout the 16th and 17th centuries. During this period, their main rivals were the states of Nupe, Borgu and Quororofa located to the south.

State formations of the forest zone.

In the southern part of modern Nigeria, two great empires flourished, Oyo and Benin. The state apparatus of these empires was as developed and well-functioning as that of the states of the North, but forests made contact with the outside world difficult, and horses could not be used because of the tsetse fly.

The founders of the dynasties that ruled in Oyo and Benin came from Ife, which became world famous thanks to bronze and terracotta items discovered on its territory. Benin already existed as a state entity when its rulers invited Prince Ife Oranyan to the kingdom, who became the founder of the dynasty of kings of Benin. Faced with difficulties in governing Benin, Oranyan handed over power to his son, born of a Benin woman, and settled in Oyo.

By the 17th century the rulers of Oyo managed to establish control over most of the Yoruba and Dahomey. The power of the Alafin, the ruler of Oyo, was directly dependent on the combat effectiveness of his large regular army. Oyo's tributary states were governed by local rulers who were controlled by a permanent representative, the Alaafin. In the 18th century Oyo was faced with the problem of maintaining its power over the vassal states, most notably Dahomey. The situation was complicated by the internal struggle for power that was waged between the Alafin and his council, headed by the Bashorun.

Oyo sought to expand its influence westward, and the kings of Benin were interested in the areas south and east of the river. Niger. At the end of the 15th century, when the Portuguese explorer d'Aveiro visited here (1486), Benin was at the zenith of its power. The state had a complexly organized administrative apparatus, a large regular army and a highly developed art of bronze casting. The Portuguese began trade relations with Benin with the purchase of pepper , but soon switched to the slave trade.For a long time, slaves became the object of purchase and sale in Benin and along the rest of the coast.

Slave trade.

Benin had everything necessary for the slave trade. His army conquered neighboring nations, and his captives were sold to European slave traders. Before the slave trade began, there were no centralized states on the east coast. The few Ijaw fishing communities in the Niger Delta supplied the Ibo and Ibibio of the interior with salt and dried fish in exchange for vegetables and tools. However, during the slave trade, some of the fishing settlements grew into small city-states. The prosperity of the state of Bonny, New Calabar and Okrika was based on the exchange of imported European goods - textiles, metalwork, tools, cheap salt, which was used as ballast in ships, and dried fish from Norway - for slaves and vegetables from the interior. Even further to the east, in the upper reaches of the Cross River, the Efik, for the convenience of trade with Europeans, created a union of cities known as Old Calabar.

The main supplier of slaves was the Aro, one of the Ibo groups. Using their control over the widely feared Aro-Chukwu oracle, the Aro could move freely throughout Ibo territory, and other Ibos did not feel safe outside their home village or alliance of villages. By bringing trade under their control and gaining access to European goods, the Aro strengthened their position as priest-traders. Slaves came not only from the immediate interior, but also from areas downstream of the Niger and Benue. Africans controlled the slaves until they were brought to the coast, where they were sold to European slave traders.

Nigeria in the 19th century.

Two events in the first decade of the 19th century, one internal, the other external, changed the situation in Nigeria. In 1807 Great Britain banned the slave trade. In 1804, Osman dan Fodio began jihad, a holy war, in the Hausan lands. Dan Fodio, unlike the Fulbe nomads, lived in the city, was a devout theologian, and over time began to criticize the incorrect, in his opinion, application of the norms of Islam. After the ruler of Gobir began to persecute Osman dan Fodio and his followers for their reform ideas in 1804, the latter declared jihad against the Hausan rulers. Osman dan Fodio relied on the oppressed Hausa peasants and Fulani nomads. When he died, his supporters conquered almost all of the Hausan lands, and the traditional ruling dynasties of the Hausan states were overthrown. His son Bello became the first caliph of the Sokoto Caliphate, which continued to expand southward. Taking advantage of internal strife in the Oyo Empire, Sokoto captured part of its territory. The main obstacle to Sokoto's territorial expansion was the state of Bornu, ruled by the reformer al-Kanemi, who after 1811 successfully repelled all Fulani invasions. The reformation of Islam became a determining factor in the strengthening of the Fulani empire, and in the 19th century, during the period of Fulban rule in Northern Nigeria, there was a flourishing of Muslim culture unprecedented in the history of Western Sudan.

The prohibition of the slave trade by Great Britain, hitherto the largest buyer of slaves on the West African coast, and the use of British ships in the fight against slave traders did not at all lead to an end to the export of slaves. If the Niger Delta states and their hinterland populations turned to the palm oil trade, the result of Fulani conquests and internal strife in Yoruba lands was the creation of significant numbers of slaves. One of the main markets for the trade of these slaves was Lagos, and Great Britain captured this island in 1861. By 1884, the British National African Company had established an almost complete monopoly on the palm oil trade in the Niger Valley, and British missionaries, educators of the future Nigerian elite, settled in Southern Nigeria. British consuls intervened in civil strife in the Niger Delta region, and British troops were periodically sent into Yoruba lands to stop internal fighting. At the Berlin Conference of 1884–1885, Great Britain demanded recognition of its right to the territory of modern Nigeria. This was largely possible thanks to the energetic actions of the head of the National African Company, George Goldie, who managed to conclude a number of agreements beneficial for Great Britain with the local rulers. Somewhat later, having headed the privileged Royal Niger Company (KNK), Goldie received a royal charter to manage new territories.

From 1885 to 1904, Britain gained control over most of Nigeria. A significant part of the Yoruba lands, weakened by internecine wars, were annexed to the Lagos colony. The areas in the southeast that were outside the KNC administration were captured by the authorities of the Niger Coast Protectorate. Often such seizures were carried out with the help of military force, an example being the occupation of Benin in 1896.

The Sokoto Caliphate also came under the control of the Royal Niger Company, but Goldie managed to capture only Nupe and Ilorin. The KNC was then embroiled in territorial disputes with France. Since its monopoly position and policies caused sharp discontent among European and African traders, in 1900 the British government deprived the CNC of its royal charter. The task of capturing Northern Nigeria was entrusted to Frederick Lugard. Superiority in weaponry allowed him to conquer the vast Fulani empire with relative ease. In 1903, the capital of the caliphate, Sokoto, capitulated, and the caliph fled to the east. By 1906, Great Britain controlled the entire territory of modern Nigeria.

Nigeria under British rule.

In Northern Nigeria, Lugard introduced a system of indirect government, i.e. used the local ruling nobility, the so-called, in colonial administration. "native authorities". Their responsibility was to collect taxes, and part of the funds collected went to finance the “native authorities” themselves. In 1914, the protectorates of Northern Nigeria and Southern Nigeria were united into one administrative unit in order to create a unified railway system and redistribute funds in favor of the North.

The unification of the two protectorates did not bring Southern and Northern Nigeria closer together, since two independent administrations continued to operate there, the work of which was coordinated by the Governor of Nigeria, who led several all-Nigerian departments. During the First World War, the system of indirect control was extended to Western Nigeria. In Eastern Nigeria, it was introduced in 1929, after the Aba riots, when the British realized the fallacy of governing through appointed chiefs who were not connected to the system of traditional authority.

With the exception of the Legislative Council of Southern Nigeria, created in 1922, to which four representatives of the local population were elected, there were no elected bodies of government in Nigeria. This situation continued until 1946, when the first of three constitutions that preceded Nigeria's independence was introduced. By this time, significant progress had been made in the development of the colony's economy. Export-import trade flourished, almost entirely controlled by European trading companies and Lebanese traders. Railways linked Lagos and Port Harcourt to the North, a network of roads ran between East and West and between North and South, and significant quantities of groundnuts were transported by water across Niger and Benue. Palm oil, peanuts, tin, cotton, cocoa beans and timber were exported to Europe. The process of formation of the Nigerian liberation movement was taking place, which was largely facilitated by the opportunities that opened up for Nigerians to travel abroad and see the world with their own eyes, as well as the anti-colonial sentiment that intensified during the Second World War. Nigerian politicians demanded not only acceleration of the country's economic development, but also greater opportunities for them to participate in governance. Both of these demands were understood by Great Britain.

In 1947, the metropolis allocated funds for the implementation of a ten-year plan for the economic development of Nigeria, and in 1946 the Constitution of Nigeria came into force. The Constitution became the object of criticism from Nigerian politicians of anti-colonial orientation, who rightly saw in the creation of separate Legislative Councils for the North, West and East the intention to maintain the fragmentation of Nigeria. The procedure for selecting members of regional legislative councils, where a majority was guaranteed to representatives of the “native authorities,” was also criticized.

The new constitution of 1951 retained the principle of regional legislative councils, but provided for the election of their members. British regionalization policies contributed to the emergence of regional-ethnic political parties. Led by Nnamdi Azikiwe, the National Council of Nigeria and Cameroon (NCNC) acted from an all-Nigerian position, but relied mainly on the Ibos of Eastern Nigeria. Among the Yorubas, the main people of Western Nigeria, the Action Group (AG) was popular. In the North, the Northern People's Congress (NPC) was beyond competition. After the abolition of the constitution in 1952, which did not last even a year, representatives of all three major political parties in Nigeria developed the 1954 constitution, which strengthened the positions of the regions. After making some amendments, it was this constitution that became the main document, according to which Nigeria became an independent state on October 1, 1960, and in 1963 it was proclaimed a republic.

Nigeria after independence. The first government of independent Nigeria was based on a coalition of the parties NSNC and SNK, the representative of the SNK, Abubakar Tafawa Balewa, became prime minister. After Nigeria was declared a republic in 1963, Azikiwe took over as president. The opposition was represented by the Action Group led by Obafemi Awolowo. Regional governments were headed by: in the North - the leader of the NNC, Ahmadu Bello, in the West - S. Akintola from the Action Group and in the East - the representative of the NNC, M. Okpara. In 1963, a fourth region, the Midwest, was created in the eastern part of Western Nigeria. In the elections held in 1964 in this region, the NSNK won.

In the early 1960s, political alliances created during the struggle for independence fell apart amid growing instability. This first happened in 1962 in the Western region, when, after the split of the Action Group, one of its factions led by S. Akintola created the Nigerian National Democratic Party (NNDP), which, having entered into an alliance with the NCNC, came to power in the region in January 1963 . By 1964, a split had emerged in this coalition regarding the assessment of the results of the 1963 population census, which demographers and the leadership of the NSNC considered falsified. They believed that the population of the North was deliberately inflated by 10 million people, which guaranteed representatives of this region a majority in the country's parliament. Somewhat later, a final split occurred, and on the eve of the December 1964 elections, a new alignment of forces arose: the SNK formed a coalition with the newly created PPDP as opposed to the alliance between the NSNK and the Action Group. The SNK-NNDP bloc won the elections, which were accompanied by numerous violations, which led to a constitutional crisis and an intensification of the struggle for power. In January 1965, a new federal government was formed, which included representatives of the Council of People's Commissars, NNDP and NSNK, and Baleva retained the post of prime minister. A new political crisis erupted in October 1965, when, as a result of fraudulent elections in the Western Region, the PPNP returned to power, which provoked a wave of unrest in this part of the country.

In January 1966, a group of army officers, consisting mainly of Ibos, carried out a military coup. The Federal Government handed over the reins of government to the Commander of the Nigerian Army, Major General J. Aguiyi-Ironsi, also an Ibo. In May, the military government promulgated decrees banning political parties and turning Nigeria into a unitary state. The four existing regions were divided into provinces. These measures confirmed Northern fears about the threat to Ibo hegemony, and a wave of Ibo pogroms swept the North. At the end of July, army units, consisting mainly of northern soldiers, carried out a new military coup, during which Aguiyi-Ironsi and a number of other officers were killed. On August 1, Lieutenant Colonel (later General) Yakubu Gowon became head of state and government. In September, the government promulgated a decree returning the country to a federal system, and a constitutional conference was held in Lagos, at Gowon's suggestion, to develop a formula acceptable to all for maintaining unity. But persecution of the Ibos resumed in the North, with thousands of people killed, leading to a mass exodus of the Ibos to the East. In this situation, representatives of Eastern Nigeria left the conference. In Aburi, Ghana, Gowon met with the head of the regional government of Eastern Nigeria, Lieutenant Colonel Odumegwu Ojukwu. Gowon agreed to radically decentralize the federal system, but the agreement never came into force. On May 27, 1967, on behalf of the regional government, Ojukwu announced the creation of the independent Republic of Biafra in Eastern Nigeria, after which Gowon declared a state of emergency in the country and divided Nigeria into 12 states, three of which were in the East. Three days later, Biafra seceded from Nigeria. In July, with artillery and air support, federal troops launched an offensive against Biafra. Federal troops quickly established control over areas inhabited by non-Ibos, but the Ibo themselves put up a desperate resistance despite widespread starvation due to the blockade of the ports. On January 15, 1970, Biafra surrendered.

Having ended the internecine war, Gowon began to resolve inter-ethnic tensions and restore the destruction caused by the war. However, Gowon failed to fulfill his promises to return the country to civilian rule by 1976 and end corruption. In July 1975, as a result of a bloodless military coup, he was removed from power. Brigadier General Murtala Mohammed became the new president of Nigeria and commander of its army.

Muhammad's government was in power for ca. 200 days, but managed to do a lot. The controversial results of the 1973 census were annulled, a broad campaign was carried out to cleanse the state apparatus and army of corrupt officials, the number of states was increased and a decision was made to create a new federal capital territory. In February 1976, Muhammad was killed during a failed military coup. Muhammad's replacement as head of state, Lieutenant General Olusegun Obasanjo, confirmed the continuity of the political course and the intention of his government to ensure the transition to civilian rule within the established time frame. In 1979, a new constitution came into force, providing for direct elections of the president and head of the executive branch. The elections held in August were won by northern Muslim Shehu Shagari.

Shagari's attempts to increase food production by increasing investment in agriculture met with some success. But other economic development plans could not be implemented, since due to the global decline in production in 1981, government revenues from oil sales began to decrease. Some projects had to be abandoned completely, while others were frozen or implemented on a smaller scale, such as the construction of the new federal capital in Abuja. In order to create jobs for Nigerians, two million West Africans (half of them from Ghana) were expelled from the country in early 1983.

Years of military rule.

In mid-1983, elections were held, accompanied by numerous irregularities, and Shagari again became president. On the night of December 31, 1983, a coup took place in Nigeria - the fourth in the country's history. Some articles of the constitution were suspended and political parties were dissolved. Major General Muhammad Buhari became the head of the federal military government. Buhari was overthrown in another military coup in August 1985, and the state was led by Major General Ibrahim Babangida. Appealing to the national sentiments of Nigerians, Babangida's government refused to continue negotiations with the International Monetary Fund (IMF) to provide Nigeria with a loan of $2.5 billion.

During his eight years in power, Babangida achieved some success in strengthening central power, creating nine new states and dealing harshly with political opponents. The continued fall in world oil prices contributed to the destabilization of the situation in the country. Those involved in attempted military coups in 1985 and 1990 were executed, and the five-year timetable for a return to civilian rule, the "Third Republic", was repeatedly extended. Some Muslim groups advocated the creation of an Islamic state in the country, which did not meet with sharp rebuff from the military government, the majority of which were northerners. In October 1989, two political parties were created by government decree (the military believed that two parties were quite enough for the country), which was supposed to somehow reduce the intensity of contradictions between the three main ethnic regions. In all elections between 1990 and 1992, the Social Democratic Party (SDP) won victories over the slightly more conservative National Republican Convention party.

The protracted transition to civilian rule ended with presidential elections on June 12, 1993. Voter turnout was low, but voting went smoothly. The final official results of the election were never released, but Moshood Abiola, a wealthy Yoruba businessman, is believed to have won. His victory is noteworthy for several reasons. Firstly, for the first time since the late 1970s, the country's leader was not from the North, and for the first time in the history of Nigeria, the government was headed by a civilian from the southern states. Nevertheless, Abiola enjoyed strong support from the population of all regions of Nigeria, including the North, the homeland of his rival Bashir Tofa.

However, despite the historical significance of these elections, further events took an unexpected turn: on June 23, the military leadership of Nigeria announced the annulment of their results. Throughout the summer, the country, especially the southwestern part of Abiola's homeland, was paralyzed by numerous strikes and strikes. The political crisis eventually forced Babangida to hand over power to the Provisional National Government on August 26, 1993. The head of government, Ernst Shonekan, was unable to withstand the political crisis and, as a result of a military coup carried out on November 17, 1993 by Defense Minister Sani Abacha, was removed from power.

Abacha's reign (1993–1998) turned out to be the darkest period in the history of independent Nigeria. Abacha initially enjoyed significant support from many prominent political figures, partly due to his lack of a clear political agenda. However, over the course of the year, civilian ministers in Abacha's government were gradually removed from important matters, and it became clear that the country was in the grip of a brutal personal dictatorship. The most striking manifestation of the political evolution of the new head of Nigeria was the imprisonment of M. Abiola. Abiola actively campaigned for recognition of the results of the presidential elections, and on June 12, 1994, on the first anniversary of the elections, he declared himself the legitimate president of Nigeria and was arrested. In a show of support for Abiola, in the summer of 1994, workers in the gas and oil industry went on strike, which paralyzed the entire country for nine weeks, but was suppressed by force.

The years of Sani Abacha's rule were marked by numerous human rights violations in Nigeria. Constant repression of the opposition, including arrests and torture, and several high-profile incidents led to the country's international isolation. In March 1995, former head of state Olusegun Obasanjo was arrested on controversial charges of plotting a coup. On November 10, 1995, after a show trial before a military tribunal, Ken-Saro Wiwa, a writer and rights activist for the Ogoni, an ethnic group of the Ibibio people, was executed. In June 1996, Abiola's wife Kudirat was shot dead in Lagos, and although the crime was never solved, many in Nigeria believe it was carried out by the military. At that time, many famous Nigerians, in particular the writer Wole Soyinka, were expelled from the country.

Due to corruption and government mistakes, the Nigerian economy has not been able to recover from stagnation. Abacha managed to maintain macroeconomic stability - control inflation and the exchange rate of the national currency - but there was no real economic growth, since the funds allocated for economic development were stolen by the military. The full scale of corruption under the Abacha regime became known after the government of Abdusalam Abubakar took a number of tough measures to return at least part of the stolen money to the state treasury.

Abacha's reign was marked by a series of foreign policy failures. Due to numerous human rights violations, the United States imposed economic sanctions against Nigeria and its membership in the Commonwealth of Nations was suspended. Particularly unpleasant for the Nigerian authorities was the criticism of the abuses of the military regime, which South African President Nelson Mandela made at a meeting of the heads of state of the Commonwealth. Already strained Nigerian-American relations deteriorated further when, in September 1997, the military dispersed participants in a reception in honor of the departing US Ambassador to Nigeria, Walter Carrington, which in itself was a blatant violation of diplomatic protocol. In West Africa, Nigeria has achieved some success and strengthened its position as a regional leader. The Inter-African Armed Forces, the backbone of which is Nigerians (ECOMOG), made a significant contribution to stabilizing the situation for the 1997 elections in Liberia. Even more successful was the Nigerian military intervention in Sierra Leone. In June 1997, Nigeria took military action against the military junta of Sierra Leone, which seized power on May 25, 1997. In February 1998, with the help of Nigerian troops, the former legally elected civilian government was restored.

Officially, the main political goal of the Abacha regime, like that of his predecessor Ibrahim Babangida, was to ensure a gradual transition to democracy. During the transition period, it was planned to hold a conference on a new constitution, elections to local authorities, and registration of political parties. However, as October 1, 1998, the date for the transfer of power to a civilian government, approached, it became increasingly clear that the entire transition period was just a cover for Abacha's intention to consolidate his own power. Independent political parties were outlawed, pro-regime organizations received financial subsidies from the regime, and potential rivals to Abacha's presidential bid were harassed and arrested. The final evidence of the true intentions of the ruling regime was the nomination of Sani Abacha as a candidate for the presidential post in early 1998 by all five official political parties. This led to a barrage of criticism from a number of civil society organizations, in particular the Zi group created by Alex Ekwueme, which included prominent politicians, as well as university teachers and former leaders of the country, including Muhammad Buhari, Ibrahim Babangida and Ernst Shonekan.

Abacha's successor, General Abdusalam Abubakar, distanced himself from the abuses of the previous regime. Political prisoners were released, and the new authorities began to review the program for the transition to democratic rule. However, two main problems remained unresolved: the annulled June 12 election results and the imprisonment of Moshood Abiola. On July 7, a few days before his expected release, Abiola died of a heart attack. Although an autopsy carried out by international experts did not reveal signs of violent death, many attributed Abiola's death to the poor conditions in which he was detained for four years.

Political tensions that arose after Abiola's death subsided after July 20, when General Abubakar unveiled a new program for the transition to civilian rule, according to which power in Nigeria would be transferred to the civilian government elected on May 29, 1999. As the internal political situation liberalized, prominent Nigerian dissidents began to return from emigration to their homeland. In particular, Wole Soyinka came to Nigeria in October.

The US and UK governments positively assessed the new program for the transition to democracy and began to discuss the possibility of lifting sanctions. Abubakar was invited to speak at the UN and also visited South Africa.

On February 28, 1999, the presidential elections. They were won by the candidate from the People's Democratic Party, former head of state and retired General Olusegun Obosanjo, who collected over 60% of the votes.

Period of independent development.

In 1996, the government lifted restrictions on the activities of foreign investors in the country. First of all, the creation of companies with 100% foreign capital was allowed, as well as the export of financial resources by them outside the country. The new president's policy was aimed at fighting corruption, attracting foreign investment and strengthening the country's foreign policy position. In 1999, at the request of the Nigerian government, the fortune of former dictator Sani Abacha and his clan was blocked in Swiss banks. (The clan of the former dictator, who died in 1998, embezzled $2.2 billion, authorities said.) In 1999, the Commission for Combating Economic and Financial Crimes (KBEFC) was created. In the 1990s, on the initiative of O. Obasanjo, the Forum of African Leaders (Nigerian political science research center) was created, the main task of which was to study the national characteristics of political leadership in African countries. In 2000, Obasanjo joined the development of The Millennium Partnership for the African Recovery Program (MAP), put forward by South African President T. Mbeki and Algerian President A. Bouteflika. In October 2001 in Abuja, at the first meeting of the Program Implementation Committee (by that time the so-called “Omega Plan” of Senegalese President A. Wade had been integrated into it), amendments were made to the document and it was approved called the New Partnership for Africa's Development (NEPAD).

Nigeria in the 21st century

The parliamentary elections on April 12, 2003 were won by Obasanjo's party, the People's Democratic Party (PDP), which received 213 seats in the House of Representatives and 73 seats in the Senate. The All Nigeria People's Party (ANP) won 95 and 28 parliamentary seats, respectively. In the presidential elections held on April 19, 2003, Obasanjo won (61.94% of the votes), his main rival from several candidates, Muhammad Buhari (representative of the GNP), received 32.2% of the votes.

An increase in retail gasoline prices in 2004 led to mass strikes, due to which the country's economy was practically paralyzed. In the same year, the government adopted a new labor relations law, which tightened the conditions for holding strikes - in order to carry out a strike, it now must be approved by a majority of the members of the given trade union.

According to the classification of the international organization Transparency International, Nigeria is considered one of the most corrupt countries in the world. Obasanjo devotes the central place to his activities as president of the country to the fight against corruption in the state apparatus. In his opinion, the fight against corruption is necessary, first of all, to reduce the country’s external debt. 2002–2003, after being convicted of bribery, the head of the Senate, several ministers and state governors were dismissed. According to some Nigerian publications, the late wife of the president, Stella (died in October 2005), and his businessman son, Gbenga, are involved in various matters related to corruption. The search for possible abuses by the president, which was conducted in Nigeria by 3 highly paid accountants and auditors from Israel invited by parliament, did not find confirmation of the accusations. In November 2004, Obasanjo announced the income (the first of the country's government leaders) from the business he owned. An agricultural farm located in the south of the country brings in 30 million naira (250 thousand US dollars) monthly. In April 2005, the president officially called on anyone who has facts incriminating him or members of his family of corruption to make them public.

In March 2005, a special committee was created, the activities of which should stimulate efforts to correct the negative image of Nigeria created abroad. The committee included 16 prominent bankers, industrialists and officials. In addition to corruption, serious damage to the prestige of the country is caused by a well-established system of financial fraud on an international scale by Nigerian criminals, the essence of which is to send by mail and e-mail a large number of tempting offers of “profitable cooperation”, subject to the transfer of payment for intermediary services to the account of one of the Nigerian banks . In October 2005, within the framework of the Commission for Combating Economic and Financial Crimes, a special unit was created that investigates such crimes. In the fall of 2005, thanks to the efforts of this commission, the fraudsters brought to justice for the first time returned the funds stolen from her account to the victim (a citizen of the People's Republic of China).

In 2004–2005, in the Niger Delta, the main oil region of the country, illegal actions by a number of ethnic groups (primarily representatives of the Ogoni and Ijaw ethnic groups) became more frequent, creating obstacles to the activities of foreign investors. In September 2005, the government approved a draft law to combat terrorism.

In July 2005, Obasanjo, during a meeting with the president of the World Bank (WB), confirmed his intention and readiness to step down as president after the end of his term in 2007. However, Obasanjo's supporters actively campaigned for a constitutional amendment that would allow him to run for office. to the presidency for the third time. In January 2006, the Senate opposed such an amendment. In the beginning. 2006 The protests of a number of ethnic groups in the Niger Delta resumed. As a result of the actions of rebels advocating the withdrawal of foreign companies from oil production areas, it decreased by 10%.

The government is carrying out reforms in agriculture to increase its profitability. The situation in the industry was aggravated by the drought that hit some states in July 2005. Nigeria's main financial donors are the UK, the USA and France. The amount of external debt in 2004 amounted to 34 billion US dollars. In 2005, the Paris Club of creditor countries wrote off 60% of Nigeria's total debt. GDP is 132.1 billion US dollars, its growth is 5.2%. Inflation rate - 15.6%, investment - 23.1% of GDP, unemployment growth - 2.9% (data for 2005, estimate). In February 2005, the Federal Court of Nigeria decided that the money of the Abacha clan must be returned. On November 9, 2005, Switzerland returned another tranche of $180 million to Nigeria (previously, out of a total amount of $700 million found in Swiss banks, amounts of $200 million and $290 million were returned).

On October 12, 2005, a conference of the African Union (AU) was held in Abuja, dedicated to the problem of forming a unified government of the continent. Obasanjo, who was the president of the AU (his mandate was valid until January 2006; on January 24 of the same year, Congolese President Sassou Nguesso became the new head of the AU), led the work of the committee of African heads of state, created to develop the structure, program and schedule for the creation of a unified AU government.
In July 2005, Obasanjo, during a meeting with the president of the World Bank (WB), confirmed his intention and readiness to step down as president after the end of his term in 2007. However, Obasanjo's supporters actively campaigned for a constitutional amendment that would allow him to run for office. to the presidency for the third time. In January 2006, the Senate opposed such an amendment. The general election held on April 21, 2007 was won by 55-year-old Umaru Yar'Adua, the former governor of the northern Muslim state of Katsina. He was officially sworn in as head of state on May 29, 2007. This was the first time there was a peaceful transfer of power from one democratically elected president to to another in the 46-year history of independent Nigeria, marred by numerous coups. Yar'Adua's election campaign used slogans similar to Obasanjo's program; in addition, Obasanjo is the leader of the People's Democratic Party, of which the new president was a representative. Umaru Yar'Adua died on May 5, 2010, after a long illness. Before his death, Nigeria found itself in a situation of political crisis, since it was unclear how seriously ill Yar'Adua was and who should take the place of head of state during his departure for treatment abroad. It was only in February 2010 that the Nigerian Senate decided to appoint Vice President Goodluck Jonathan as interim head of state until the situation was clarified. Jonathan's opponents criticized his appointment, calling it a coup. Nigerians protested against the current situation, demanding either the return of President Yar'Adua or the holding of democratic elections. At the end of February, Yar'Adua returned to Nigeria, but there were conflicting reports about his health. And about. President Goodluck Jonathan disbanded the cabinet of the elected head of state in March 2010 and then appointed new ministers from his team. On May 6, 2010, after the death of Yar'Adua, the inauguration ceremony of Goodluck Jonathan as the new president took place.
In the elections held on April 16, 2011, the country's current president, Goodluck Jonathan, received enough votes to win in the first round of elections (to win in the first round, a candidate must win a majority of the votes and at least a quarter of the votes in 24 of Nigeria's 36 states ).

On March 28-29, 2015, presidential elections were held in Nigeria. A total of 14 candidates were registered, but the main contenders were the incumbent President Goodluck Jonathan and the All Progressives Congress (APC) candidate Muhammadu Buhari. He received 53.95% of the votes. Major General Muhammad Buhari already led the country in 1984-1985. He himself came as a result of a military coup, and was subsequently also overthrown. Goodluck Jonathan became the first president of the country who left not as a result of a military coup or his death, but as a result of elections.

Lyubov Prokopenko

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The climate throughout almost the entire territory of Nigeria is equatorial, monsoon. Average annual temperatures everywhere exceed 25 °C. In the north, the hottest months are March–June, in the south it is April, when temperatures reach 30–32 °C, and the rainiest and coolest month is August. Highest rainfall (up to 4000 mm per year) falls in the Niger Delta, in the central part of the country - 1000–1400 mm, and in the extreme northeast - only 500 mm. The driest period is winter, when the harmattan wind blows from the northeast, bringing daytime heat and sharp daily temperature changes (during the day the air warms up to 40 °C or more, and at night the temperature drops to 10 °C).

Nature

The Niger River with its Benue tributary divides the country's territory into two parts: to the south of their valleys, most of the territory is occupied by the Maritime Plain, to the north there are low plateaus. The coastal plain is formed by river sediments and stretches for hundreds of kilometers from west to east.

To the north, the terrain gradually rises and turns into stepped plateaus (Yoruba, Udi, Jos, etc.) with heights in the central part up to 2042 m (Vogel Peak on the Shebshi Plateau) and numerous outlier rocks that rise in bizarre columns above the hilly surface of the plateau. In the northwest the plateaus merge into the Sokoto Plain (basin of the river of the same name), and in the northeast - into the Bornu Plain.

Nigeria is a country of forests and savannas. Tropical rainforests once occupied most of its territory, but logging and burning for crops have reduced their area. Now tropical forests with trees entwined with vines up to 45 m high are common only on the Primorsky Plain and in river valleys. In the north of the forest zone, where there is less rainfall (up to 1600 mm), widespread deciduous dry tropical forests. Almost half of the country's territory is occupied by tall grass (wet guinea) savanna alternating with areas of park savannas (with rare trees - kaya, isoberlinia, mitragyna).

During the rainy season, tall grasses can cover not only humans, but also large animals. During the dry season, the savanna looks lifeless and burnt out. To the north of the high-grass savannah zone lies the dry Sudanese savannah with characteristic umbrella acacias, baobabs and thorny bushes. In the extreme northeast of the country, where rain is a rarity, lies the so-called Sahel savannah with sparse vegetation. And only on the shores of Lake Chad the picture changes dramatically: here is a kingdom of lush greenery, thickets of reeds and papyrus.

Nigeria's fauna is equally diverse, especially well preserved in national parks and reserves. (in particular, in the Yankari Nature Reserve, on the Bauchi Plateau). Elephants, giraffes, rhinoceroses, leopards, hyenas, and numerous antelopes are widespread (including the forest dwarf antelope dik-dik, weighing no more than 3 kg), there are large herds of buffalo, and in some places the scaly anteater, chimpanzee and even gorilla are preserved, not to mention monkeys, baboons, and lemurs. The world of birds is bright and rich in forests, savannas, especially along river banks.

Population

Among Nigeria's 190 million people, there are more than 200 different nationalities speaking different languages. The most numerous are the Ibo peoples (or Igbo), Yorubo, Hausa, Edo, Ibibio, Tiv. The traditional culture of the country, the clothing and way of life of its inhabitants are equally diverse, which, along with the exotic nature, is the main attraction of Nigeria. Colored mats, calabashes, homespun clothes, wood and bronze items are readily purchased by tourists.

Big cities

Nigeria has many relatively large cities, although many of them resemble huge villages in appearance. The capital of the country, Lagos, with a population of more than a million, was founded by Europeans four hundred years ago. Now it's modern city, a major port and industrial center. There is a university, ethnographic and archaeological museums, and comfortable hotels. Ibadan (about 1.3 million inhabitants)- the main city of the Yoruba people, excellent weavers and metal and wood carvers. Ibadan arose in the 18th century; the fortress walls have been preserved in the old part of the city. Benin City preserves ancient traditions: numerous religious holidays are especially picturesque here. Ife is a famous center of African art; bronze and terracotta products are especially interesting, ancient examples of which are kept in the local museum. In the north of the country, the city of Kano, which has existed for more than a thousand years, is interesting with a grandiose mosque and the ancient palace of the emir (Kano residents practice Islam) and a bazaar famous throughout Africa. Other major cities are Port Harcourt, Aba, Enugu, Onicha, Calabar, Zaria, Kaduna, Katsina, Ilorin, Maiduguri, Jos. Some of them were built relatively recently, others have a centuries-old history.

Economy

Nigeria belongs to the group of poorest countries in the world. The basis of the economy is the oil industry (85% of foreign exchange earnings – 2005). There is a significant scale of “shadow” business. About 60% of the population is below the poverty line. GDP per capita in 2005 was $390 (according to the World Bank (WB).

Story

Many of the modern peoples of Nigeria migrated to its territory from the north 4 thousand years ago. Around 2000 BC. the majority of the autochthonous population adopted some farming and animal domestication skills from the newcomers. The transition to settled agriculture entailed the creation of permanent settlements that served as protection from external enemies. It was in such villages that the creators of the city dating back to 2000 BC lived. Nok culture. Numerous evidence discovered in the North allows us to conclude that the people of the Nok culture were familiar with the technology of smelting and processing tin and iron. These skills allowed them not only to revolutionize agricultural production, but also to begin making weapons with which they conquered territories and created larger political entities.

The first large centralized state on the territory of Northern Nigeria was Kanem-Bornu, the emergence of which dates back to the end of the 8th century. AD It was originally located outside of modern Nigeria, north of Lake. Chad, but then quickly expanded its borders south into Bornu territory. By the 13th century. Kanem-Bornu was known in Egypt, Tunisia and Fezzan. The basis of the state's wealth was its intermediary role in the trans-Saharan trade in salt, beads, textiles, swords, horses and European goods from North Africa, which were exchanged for ivory and slaves. To the west, the states of Katsina and Kano, competitors of Kanem-Bornu in the trans-Saharan trade, were the most significant of the seven Hausa states that emerged at different times in the early 2nd millennium AD. Other Hausa states were Daura, Gobir, Rano, Biram and Zaria, the latter being a major supplier of slaves. Despite the legend of descent from the same ancestor and the similarity of cultural traditions, the Hausa states developed autonomously and sometimes even fought with each other. Kano and most of the eastern Hausan lands were tributaries of Kanema-Bornu.

Both Kanem-Bornu and the Hausa states had a well-functioning system of government, the population regularly paid taxes, and there was a standing army, the striking force of which was cavalry. By the 15th century Islam, brought here through the desert by Muslim traders, strengthened in the states of this region. Since the 12th century. all the Mai, the rulers of Bornu, were Muslims. The influence of Islam in the Hausa states affected the system of government and justice, and also contributed to the creation of a Muslim elite.

In the first two decades of the 16th century. the great Songhai Empire, which sought to establish control over all the Hausa states, made Kano and Katsina its tributaries. In 1516–1517, the Songhai vassal Kanta, the ruler of Kebbi, after attacking the state of Air, declared himself a sovereign ruler and subjugated all the Hausa lands. This caused Kanta's conflict with the Bornu ruler, and he defeated the Bornu army twice. After Kanta's death in 1526, the Hausa alliance collapsed, and the threat to Bornu's western borders disappeared.

Around 1483, after two centuries of internal strife, the capital of Kanema-Bornu was moved to Ngazargama in what is now Nigeria. In the 16th century Kanem-Bornu strengthened its position and after the collapse of the Songhai Empire as a result of the invasion of Moroccan troops in 1591, it became the most powerful state in Western Sudan. The apogee of the development of this state occurred during the reign of Mai Idris Aluma (d. 1617), known as an Islamic reformer and a skilled military leader.

The disunity of the Hausa states continued throughout the 16th and 17th centuries. During this period, their main rivals were the states of Nupe, Borgu and Quororofa located to the south.

In the southern part of modern Nigeria, two great empires flourished, Oyo and Benin. The state apparatus of these empires was as developed and well-functioning as that of the states of the North, but forests made contact with the outside world difficult, and horses could not be used because of the tsetse fly.

The founders of the dynasties that ruled in Oyo and Benin came from Ife, which became world famous thanks to bronze and terracotta items discovered on its territory. Benin already existed as a state entity when its rulers invited Prince Ife Oranyan to the kingdom, who became the founder of the dynasty of kings of Benin. Faced with difficulties in governing Benin, Oranyan handed over power to his son, born of a Benin woman, and settled in Oyo.

By the 17th century the rulers of Oyo managed to establish control over most of the Yoruba and Dahomey. The power of the Alafin, the ruler of Oyo, was directly dependent on the combat effectiveness of his large regular army. Oyo's tributary states were governed by local rulers who were controlled by a permanent representative, the Alaafin. In the 18th century Oyo was faced with the problem of maintaining its power over the vassal states, most notably Dahomey. The situation was complicated by the internal struggle for power that was waged between the Alafin and his council, headed by the Bashorun.

Oyo sought to expand its influence westward, and the kings of Benin were interested in the areas south and east of the river. Niger. At the end of the 15th century, when the Portuguese explorer d'Aveiro visited here (1486) , Benin was at the zenith of its power. The state had a complexly organized administrative apparatus, a large regular army and a highly developed art of bronze casting. The Portuguese began trading relations with Benin by purchasing pepper, but soon switched to trading slaves. For a long time, slaves became objects of sale and purchase in Benin and along the rest of the coast.

Benin had everything necessary for the slave trade. His army conquered neighboring nations, and his captives were sold to European slave traders. Before the slave trade began, there were no centralized states on the east coast. The few Ijaw fishing communities in the Niger Delta supplied the Ibo and Ibibio of the interior with salt and dried fish in exchange for vegetables and tools. However, during the slave trade, some of the fishing settlements grew into small city-states. The prosperity of the state of Bonny, New Calabar and Okrika was based on the exchange of imported European goods - textiles, metalwork, tools, cheap salt, which was used as ballast in ships, and dried fish from Norway - for slaves and vegetables from the interior. Even further to the east, in the upper reaches of the Cross River, the Efik, for the convenience of trade with Europeans, created a union of cities known as Old Calabar.

The main supplier of slaves was the Aro, one of the Ibo groups. Using their control over the widely feared Aro-Chukwu oracle, the Aro could move freely throughout Ibo territory, and other Ibos did not feel safe outside their home village or alliance of villages. By bringing trade under their control and gaining access to European goods, the Aro strengthened their position as priest-traders. Slaves came not only from the immediate interior, but also from areas downstream of the Niger and Benue. Africans controlled the slaves until they were brought to the coast, where they were sold to European slave traders.

Two events in the first decade of the 19th century, one internal, the other external, changed the situation in Nigeria. In 1807 Great Britain banned the slave trade. In 1804, Osman dan Fodio began jihad, a holy war, in the Hausan lands. Dan Fodio, unlike the Fulbe nomads, lived in the city, was a devout theologian, and over time began to criticize the incorrect, in his opinion, application of the norms of Islam. After the ruler of Gobir began to persecute Osman dan Fodio and his followers for their reform ideas in 1804, the latter declared jihad against the Hausan rulers. Osman dan Fodio relied on the oppressed Hausa peasants and Fulani nomads. When he died, his supporters conquered almost all of the Hausan lands, and the traditional ruling dynasties of the Hausan states were overthrown. His son Bello became the first caliph of the Sokoto Caliphate, which continued to expand southward. Taking advantage of internal strife in the Oyo Empire, Sokoto captured part of its territory. The main obstacle to Sokoto's territorial expansion was the state of Bornu, ruled by the reformer al-Kanemi, who after 1811 successfully repelled all Fulani invasions. The reformation of Islam became a determining factor in the strengthening of the Fulani empire, and in the 19th century, during the period of Fulban rule in Northern Nigeria, there was a flourishing of Muslim culture unprecedented in the history of Western Sudan.

The prohibition of the slave trade by Great Britain, hitherto the largest buyer of slaves on the West African coast, and the use of British ships in the fight against slave traders did not at all lead to an end to the export of slaves. If the Niger Delta states and their hinterland populations turned to the palm oil trade, the result of Fulani conquests and internal strife in Yoruba lands was the creation of significant numbers of slaves. One of the main markets for the trade of these slaves was Lagos, and Great Britain captured this island in 1861. By 1884, the British National African Company had established an almost complete monopoly on the palm oil trade in the Niger Valley, and British missionaries, educators of the future Nigerian elite, settled in Southern Nigeria. British consuls intervened in civil strife in the Niger Delta region, and British troops were periodically sent into Yoruba lands to stop internal fighting. At the Berlin Conference of 1884–1885, Great Britain demanded recognition of its right to the territory of modern Nigeria. This was largely possible thanks to the energetic actions of the head of the National African Company, George Goldie, who managed to conclude a number of agreements beneficial for Great Britain with the local rulers. Somewhat later, heading the privileged Royal Niger Company (KNK), Goldie received a royal charter to govern the new territories.

In 1885–1904, Great Britain established control over most of Nigeria, and by 1906, it already controlled the entire territory of modern Nigeria. A significant part of the Yoruba lands, weakened by internecine wars, were annexed to the Lagos colony. The areas in the southeast that were outside the KNC administration were captured by the authorities of the Niger Coast Protectorate. Often such seizures were carried out with the help of military force, an example being the occupation of Benin in 1896.

In Northern Nigeria, Lugard introduced a system of indirect government, i.e. used the local ruling nobility, the so-called, in colonial administration. "native authorities". Their responsibility was to collect taxes, and part of the funds collected went to finance the “native authorities” themselves. In 1914, the protectorates of Northern Nigeria and Southern Nigeria were united into one administrative unit in order to create a unified railway system and redistribute funds in favor of the North.

The unification of the two protectorates did not bring Southern and Northern Nigeria closer together, since two independent administrations continued to operate there, the work of which was coordinated by the Governor of Nigeria, who led several all-Nigerian departments. During the First World War, the system of indirect control was extended to Western Nigeria. In Eastern Nigeria, it was introduced in 1929, after the Aba riots, when the British realized the fallacy of governing through appointed chiefs who were not connected to the system of traditional authority.

With the exception of the Legislative Council of Southern Nigeria, created in 1922, to which four representatives of the local population were elected, there were no elected bodies of government in Nigeria. This situation continued until 1946, when the first of three constitutions that preceded Nigeria's independence was introduced. By this time, significant progress had been made in the development of the colony's economy. Export-import trade flourished, almost entirely controlled by European trading companies and Lebanese traders. Railways linked Lagos and Port Harcourt to the North, a network of roads ran between East and West and between North and South, and significant quantities of groundnuts were transported by water across Niger and Benue. Palm oil, peanuts, tin, cotton, cocoa beans and timber were exported to Europe. The process of formation of the Nigerian liberation movement was taking place, which was largely facilitated by the opportunities that opened up for Nigerians to travel abroad and see the world with their own eyes, as well as the anti-colonial sentiment that intensified during the Second World War. Nigerian politicians demanded not only acceleration of the country's economic development, but also greater opportunities for them to participate in governance. Both of these demands were understood by Great Britain.

In 1947, the metropolis allocated funds for the implementation of a ten-year plan for the economic development of Nigeria, and in 1946 the Constitution of Nigeria came into force. The Constitution became the object of criticism from Nigerian politicians of anti-colonial orientation, who rightly saw in the creation of separate Legislative Councils for the North, West and East the intention to maintain the fragmentation of Nigeria. The procedure for selecting members of regional legislative councils, where a majority was guaranteed to representatives of the “native authorities,” was also criticized.

The new constitution of 1951 retained the principle of regional legislative councils, but provided for the election of their members. British regionalization policies contributed to the emergence of regional-ethnic political parties. After the abolition of the constitution in 1952, which did not last even a year, representatives of all three major political parties in Nigeria developed the 1954 constitution, which strengthened the positions of the regions. After making some amendments, it was this constitution that became the main document, according to which Nigeria became an independent state on October 1, 1960, and in 1963 it was proclaimed a republic.

The first government of independent Nigeria was based on a coalition of the parties NSNC and SNK, the representative of the SNK, Abubakar Tafawa Balewa, became prime minister. After Nigeria was declared a republic in 1963, Azikiwe took over as president. The opposition was represented by the Action Group led by Obafemi Awolowo. Regional governments were headed by: in the North - the leader of the NNC, Ahmadu Bello, in the West - S. Akintola from the Action Group and in the East - the representative of the NNC, M. Okpara. In 1963, a fourth region, the Midwest, was created in the eastern part of Western Nigeria. In the elections held in 1964 in this region, the NSNK won.

In the early 1960s, political alliances created during the struggle for independence fell apart amid growing instability. In January 1965, a new federal government was formed, which included representatives of the Council of People's Commissars, NNDP and NSNK, and Baleva retained the post of prime minister. A new political crisis erupted in October 1965, when, as a result of fraudulent elections in the Western Region, the PPNP returned to power, which provoked a wave of unrest in this part of the country.

In January 1966, a group of army officers, consisting mainly of Ibos, carried out a military coup. The Federal Government handed over the reins of government to the Commander of the Nigerian Army, Major General J. Aguiyi-Ironsi, also an Ibo. In May, the military government promulgated decrees banning political parties and turning Nigeria into a unitary state. The four existing regions were divided into provinces. These measures confirmed Northern fears about the threat to Ibo hegemony, and a wave of Ibo pogroms swept the North. At the end of July, army units, consisting mainly of northern soldiers, carried out a new military coup, during which Aguiyi-Ironsi and a number of other officers were killed. On August 1, Lieutenant Colonel became the head of state and government (later general) Yakubu Gowon. In September, the government promulgated a decree returning the country to a federal system, and a constitutional conference was held in Lagos, at Gowon's suggestion, to develop a formula acceptable to all for maintaining unity. But persecution of the Ibos resumed in the North, with thousands of people killed, leading to a mass exodus of the Ibos to the East. In this situation, representatives of Eastern Nigeria left the conference. In Aburi, Ghana, Gowon met with the head of the regional government of Eastern Nigeria, Lieutenant Colonel Odumegwu Ojukwu. Gowon agreed to radically decentralize the federal system, but the agreement never came into force. On May 27, 1967, on behalf of the regional government, Ojukwu announced the creation of the independent Republic of Biafra in Eastern Nigeria, after which Gowon declared a state of emergency in the country and divided Nigeria into 12 states, three of which were in the East. Three days later, Biafra seceded from Nigeria. In July, with artillery and air support, federal troops launched an offensive against Biafra. Federal troops quickly established control over areas inhabited by non-Ibos, but the Ibo themselves put up a desperate resistance despite widespread starvation due to the blockade of the ports. On January 15, 1970, Biafra surrendered.

Having ended the internecine war, Gowon began to resolve inter-ethnic tensions and restore the destruction caused by the war. However, Gowon failed to fulfill his promises to return the country to civilian rule by 1976 and end corruption. In July 1975, as a result of a bloodless military coup, he was removed from power. Brigadier General Murtala Mohammed became the new president of Nigeria and commander of its army.

Muhammad's government was in power for ca. 200 days, but managed to do a lot. The controversial results of the 1973 census were annulled, a broad campaign was carried out to cleanse the state apparatus and army of corrupt officials, the number of states was increased and a decision was made to create a new federal capital territory. In February 1976, Muhammad was killed during a failed military coup. Muhammad's replacement as head of state, Lieutenant General Olusegun Obasanjo, confirmed the continuity of the political course and the intention of his government to ensure the transition to civilian rule within the established time frame. In 1979, a new constitution came into force, providing for direct elections of the president and head of the executive branch. The elections held in August were won by northern Muslim Shehu Shagari.

Shagari's attempts to increase food production by increasing investment in agriculture met with some success. But other economic development plans could not be implemented, since due to the global decline in production in 1981, government revenues from oil sales began to decrease. Some projects had to be abandoned completely, while others were frozen or implemented on a smaller scale, such as the construction of the new federal capital in Abuja. In order to create jobs for Nigerians, two million West Africans were expelled from the country in early 1983 (half of them are from Ghana).

In mid-1983, elections were held, accompanied by numerous irregularities, and Shagari again became president. On the night of December 31, 1983, a coup took place in Nigeria - the fourth in the country's history. Some articles of the constitution were suspended and political parties were dissolved. Major General Muhammad Buhari became the head of the federal military government. Buhari was overthrown in another military coup in August 1985, and the state was led by Major General Ibrahim Babangida. Appealing to the national sentiments of Nigerians, the Babangida government refused to continue negotiations with the International Monetary Fund (IMF) on providing Nigeria with a loan of $2.5 billion.

During his eight years in power, Babangida achieved some success in strengthening central power, creating nine new states and dealing harshly with political opponents. The continued fall in world oil prices contributed to the destabilization of the situation in the country. Those involved in attempted military coups in 1985 and 1990 were executed, and the five-year timetable for a return to civilian rule, the "Third Republic", was repeatedly extended. Some Muslim groups advocated the creation of an Islamic state in the country, which did not meet with sharp rebuff from the military government, the majority of which were northerners. In October 1989, two political parties were created by government decree (the military believed that two parties were enough for the country), which was supposed to somehow reduce the intensity of contradictions between the three main ethnic regions. In all elections between 1990–1992, the Social Democratic Party (SDP) won victories over the slightly more conservative National Republican Convention party.

The protracted transition to civilian rule ended with presidential elections on June 12, 1993. Voter turnout was low, but voting went smoothly. The final official results of the election were never released, but Moshood Abiola, a wealthy Yoruba businessman, is believed to have won. His victory is noteworthy for several reasons. Firstly, for the first time since the late 1970s, the country's leader was not from the North, and for the first time in the history of Nigeria, the government was headed by a civilian from the southern states. Nevertheless, Abiola enjoyed strong support from the population of all regions of Nigeria, including the North, the homeland of his rival Bashir Tofa.

However, despite the historical significance of these elections, further events took an unexpected turn: on June 23, the military leadership of Nigeria announced the annulment of their results. Throughout the summer, the country, especially the southwestern part of Abiola's homeland, was paralyzed by numerous strikes and strikes. The political crisis eventually forced Babangida to hand over power to the Provisional National Government on August 26, 1993. The head of government, Ernst Shonekan, was unable to withstand the political crisis and, as a result of a military coup carried out on November 17, 1993 by Defense Minister Sani Abacha, was removed from power.

Abacha's reign (1993–1998) turned out to be the darkest period in the history of independent Nigeria. Abacha initially enjoyed significant support from many prominent political figures, partly due to his lack of a clear political agenda. However, over the course of the year, civilian ministers in Abacha's government were gradually removed from important matters, and it became clear that the country was in the grip of a brutal personal dictatorship. The most striking manifestation of the political evolution of the new head of Nigeria was the imprisonment of M. Abiola. Abiola actively campaigned for recognition of the results of the presidential elections, and on June 12, 1994, on the first anniversary of the elections, he declared himself the legitimate president of Nigeria and was arrested. In a show of support for Abiola, in the summer of 1994, workers in the gas and oil industry went on strike, which paralyzed the entire country for nine weeks, but was suppressed by force.

Abacha's successor, General Abdusalam Abubakar, distanced himself from the abuses of the previous regime. Political prisoners were released, and the new authorities began to review the program for the transition to democratic rule. However, two main problems remained unresolved: the annulled June 12 election results and the imprisonment of Moshood Abiola. On July 7, a few days before his expected release, Abiola died of a heart attack. Although an autopsy carried out by international experts did not reveal signs of violent death, many attributed Abiola's death to the poor conditions in which he was detained for four years. Political tensions that arose after Abiola's death subsided after July 20, when General Abubakar unveiled a new program for the transition to civilian rule, according to which power in Nigeria would be transferred to the civilian government elected on May 29, 1999. As the internal political situation liberalized, prominent Nigerian dissidents began to return from emigration to their homeland. In particular, Wole Soyinka came to Nigeria in October. The US and UK governments positively assessed the new program for the transition to democracy and began to discuss the possibility of lifting sanctions. Abubakar was invited to speak at the UN and also visited South Africa.

On February 28, 1999, presidential elections were held in Nigeria. They were won by the candidate from the People's Democratic Party, former head of state and retired General Olusegun Obosanjo, who collected over 60% of the votes.

Geographical location of Nigeria.

NIGERIA, Federal Republic of Nigeria, a state in West Africa. From the south, Nigeria is washed by the waters of the Gulf of Guinea. Nigeria borders Niger, Benin, Cameroon, and the Republic of Chad. Member of the Commonwealth. The area of ​​Nigeria is 923.8 thousand km2. The largest country in Africa by population (133.88 million people, 2003). The capital of Nigeria is Abuja. The main city and actual capital is Lagos, other major cities are Kano, Ibadan, Kaduna, Port Hartcourt.

State structure of Nigeria.

Nigeria is a federal republic, headed by a president. The legislative body is the bicameral National Assembly. During the years of independence, several military coups took place, several constitutions were changed, the last one was adopted in 1999.

Administrative divisions of Nigeria.

According to the administrative-territorial division, Nigeria consists of 30 states and 1 federal territory, Abuja.

Population of Nigeria.

Nigeria is the largest country in Africa by population (133.88 million people, 2003). Ethnic composition: over 250 nationalities and groups, the most numerous: Fulani and Hausa 29%, Yoruba 21%, Ibo 18%, Ijaw 10%, Ibibio 3.5%, Tiv 2.5%, Bini, etc. About 50% of believers are Muslims , 40% are Christians (mostly Protestants), 10% adhere to traditional beliefs. The official language of Nigeria is English. The actual settlement of peoples and tribes does not coincide with the division of the country into states, which has repeatedly led to armed conflicts. There is also discord between Christians and Muslims. In states where Muslims hold power, legal proceedings are based on Sharia law. The population density of Nigeria is 144.9 people/km2. Urban population 39%.

Climate, relief and natural resources of Nigeria.

From the south, Nigeria is washed by the Gulf of Guinea, in the northeast it reaches the shores of Lake Chad. The Niger River with its Benue tributary divides the country's territory into two parts: to the south of their valleys, most of the territory is occupied by the Maritime Plain, to the north there are low plateaus. The coastal plain is formed by river sediments and stretches for hundreds of kilometers from west to east. To the north, the terrain gradually rises and turns into stepped plateaus (Yoruba, Udi, Jos, etc.) with heights in the central part up to 2042 m (Vogel Peak on the Shebshi Plateau) and numerous outlier rocks. In the northwest, the plateau passes into the Sokoto Plain (the basin of the river of the same name), and in the northeast into the Bornu Plain.

The climate of Nigeria is equatorial and monsoon throughout almost the entire territory of Nigeria. The rainiest and coolest month is August. The greatest amount of precipitation (up to 4000 mm per year) falls in the Niger Delta, in the extreme northeast - only 500 mm. The driest period is winter, when the harmattan wind blows from the northeast, bringing daytime heat and sharp daily temperature changes.

Nigeria is characterized by both savannas and tropical forests. Tropical rainforests once occupied most of its territory, but now they are distributed only on the Maritime Plain and in river valleys. In the north of the forest zone, deciduous dry tropical forests are common. Almost half of the country's territory is occupied by tall grass (wet Guinean) savanna, alternating with areas of park savannas (with sparse trees - kaya, isoberlinia, mitragyna). To the north of the high-grass savannah zone lies the dry Sudanese savannah with characteristic umbrella acacias, baobabs and thorny bushes. In the extreme northeast of the country lies the so-called Sahel savannah with sparse vegetation. And only on the shores of Lake Chad is there an abundance of lush greenery, thickets of reeds and papyrus.

The fauna of Nigeria is equally diverse, preserved in national parks and reserves (in particular, in the Yankari reserve, on the Bauchi plateau). Elephants, giraffes, rhinoceroses, leopards, hyenas, numerous antelopes (including the forest dwarf antelope dik-dik) are widespread, large herds of buffalo are found, and in some places the scaly anteater, chimpanzee and gorilla, monkeys, baboons, and pottos are preserved. The world of birds is rich in forests, savannas, especially along river banks.

Economy and industry of Nigeria.

Nigeria's economy is based on the oil industry and agriculture. Despite the fact that the country is in 13th place in the world in terms of oil production, its GNP per capita is $310 (1999).

Tin, limestone and natural gas are also mined in significant quantities in Nigeria. Tungsten, tantalum, thorium, zircon, uranium, polymetallic ores, gold, etc. are also mined. Agriculture accounts for up to two-fifths of GDP and employs up to 50% of the economically active population. Cocoa, rubber and palm kernels are the only export crops. For domestic consumption, cassava, yams and sweet potatoes, sorghum and millet, corn, and rice are grown. Other crops are peanuts, oil palm, cotton. The cultivation of pulses, sugarcane, vegetables and fruits plays an important role in crop production.

Livestock farming in Nigeria is extensive. OK. 90% of the livestock population is concentrated in the northern part of the country (where there is no tsetse fly). Traditional leather dressing is preserved; leather made from goats, “red morocco,” is especially valued. Domestic production is insufficient to feed its rapidly growing population and Nigeria is an importer of food, especially grain.

With approximately one-eighth of Nigeria covered in forests, the country has the potential to develop a timber industry, but predatory deforestation has hampered the industry's growth and has caused catastrophic droughts since the 1960s.

Despite the growth in production, the manufacturing industry remains largely small-scale. With the help of the USSR, a metallurgical plant was built in Ajaokuta. There are assembly lines at the Volkswagen, Peugeot, and Fiat factories.

History of Nigeria.

In ancient times, Iron Age cultures existed on the territory of modern Nigeria. In the Middle Ages, the Hausa states of Kanem-Bornu, Benin and others were formed on the territory of Nigeria. They were destroyed by Fulani nomads, who formed their own emirate. In the 15th century The Portuguese landed on the coast of the Gulf of Guinea and began the slave trade. The coast began to be called the Slave Coast. In the 17th century The British replaced the Portuguese.

In the second half of the 19th - early 20th centuries. The colonial conquest of Nigeria by Great Britain was completed (since 1914 it was called the “Colony and Protectorate of Nigeria”). On October 1, 1960, Nigeria received the status of an independent state. October 1, 1963 - federal republic. In 1966, a period of military coups began. In May 1967, Eastern Nigeria announced its separation from the rest of the country and the proclamation of the independent state of Biafra. In the three-year civil war that followed, the separatists were defeated and capitulated. In 1976-1985, several military regimes changed, and corruption increased. In 1993, the military regime of General S. Abacha was introduced in the country, political parties were dissolved, censorship was introduced and an attempt was made to carry out reforms under the control of the IMF.

In 1998, after the death of General Abacha, power passed to General O. Obasanjo (previously led the country (1976-1979)). Obasanjo began a new stage of reforms, conducted an investigation into corruption (in particular, he announced that General Abacha and his associates hid $1 billion in secret accounts). The determining factor remains the presence of transnational corporations in Nigeria (Royal Dutch Shell controls all oil production) and the corruption of officials (Nigeria ranks first in the world according to this indicator). Nigeria's federal government has little influence in Muslim-majority states.

The official name is the Federal Republic of Nigeria.

Located in western Africa. Area 923.8 thousand km2, population 120 million people. (2001). The official language is English. The capital is Abuja. Public holiday - Independence Day on October 1 (since 1960). The currency is the naira (equal to 100 kobo).

Member approx. 60 international organizations, incl. The UN (since 1960) and its specialized organizations, the AU, the British Commonwealth, the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM), the OIC, the Group of African, Caribbean and Pacific countries, etc.

Sights of Nigeria

Archaeological site Sungbo's Eredo

Geography of Nigeria

Located between 2°40′ and 14° east longitude and 14° and 4° north latitude, bordered on the west by Benin, on the north by Niger, on the northeast by Chad, on the east and southeast by Cameroon, and washed on the south by waters of the Gulf of Guinea of ​​the Atlantic Ocean. The coastline (853 km) is relatively straight, slightly indented, with the exception of the Niger Delta region. 2/3 of Nigeria's territory are vast, level plateaus, the rest are plains. The narrow coastal plain turns into stepped plateaus: Yoruba, Udi, Jos, etc. Peaks: Vogel (2042 m), Shere (1735 m), Wadi (1698 m). North of the Jos Plateau the terrain declines into the Hausa High Plain.

Nigeria is one of the world's top ten oil exporters (reserves 22.5 billion barrels - about 3% of the world's total). Natural gas reserves are 124 trillion m3 (10th place in the world). The subsoil is rich in coal, uranium, iron ore, columbite, tin, lead, manganese, zinc, gold, tungsten, limestone, asbestos, graphite, kaolin, mica and other types of raw materials.

The soil in Nigeria is infertile. The coastal plain is covered with red-yellow laterite soils, the Yoruba Plateau and Northern Plateau are covered with red laterite soils, the northern lowland areas are covered with red-brown soils, and the northwestern areas are covered with black soils of dry savannas.

The climate is tropical, equatorial-monsoon. The arrival of the “dry season” or “rainy season” is determined by the tropical front, i.e. zone of contact of winds: blowing from the north, from the deserts, hot, dry and carrying a lot of dust “har-mattan” and humid monsoons originating in the south of the Atlantic. The maximum temperature of the “dry season” (December-January) on the coast with high humidity is +35°C, in the north with lower humidity +31°C, “rainy season” (April-May) +23°C and +18°C respectively. The greatest amount of precipitation falls in the Niger Delta and in the eastern part of the coast - up to 4000 mm, the least in the northeast, in the Maiduguri region - less than 600 mm per year. In the central part of the country their level is approx. 1200 mm per year, at far north and northeast - up to 500 mm.

Nigeria is located in the middle and lower reaches of the Niger River, which connects with its main tributary, the Benue, in the center of the country. Other important rivers in the country are Sokoto, Kaduna, Anambra, Katsina Ala, Gongola, Ogun, Oshun, Imo and Cross. Lake Chad is located in the northeast.

A narrow strip of mangrove and freshwater swamps on the coast gives way to a forested zone (mahogany and oil palm) with tropical wet forests grading to deciduous dry tropical forests. The zone of wet (Guinean tall grass), park (with sparse trees - kaya, isoberlinia, mitragyna) and desert (dry Sudanese with characteristic umbrella acacias, baobabs and tamarinds, as well as thorny bushes) savannah occupies approx. 1/2 of the territory. The Hausa High Plain is a semi-desert.

Nigeria has 274 species of mammals, incl. elephants, giraffes, rhinoceroses, leopards, hyenas, numerous species of antelope, scaly anteater, chimpanzee, gorilla, as well as other species of monkeys - monkeys, baboons, lemurs, etc. The swamps and tropical forests of the south of the country are home to a large number of snakes and crocodiles. The world of birds is bright and rich (over 680 species).

Population of Nigeria

Population growth 1.91% (2002 estimate). Fertility rate 39.22%, mortality 14.1%, infant mortality 72.49 people. per 1000 newborns. Life expectancy is 50.59 years, incl. women 50.6 and men 50.58 years. Age structure: 0-14 years - 43.6%, 15-64 years - 53.6%, 65 years and older - 2.8% of the population. In the entire population, there are 3% more men than women. The cities are inhabited by approx. 1/3 of the population, 57.1% of adults are literate, incl. 67.3% men and 47.3% women (est. 1995).

Ethnic composition of the population of St. 250 nations, the largest: Hausa-Fulani - 29%, Yoruba - 21%, Igbo - 18%, Ijaw - 10%, Ibibio - 3.5%, Tiv - 2.5%, Bini, etc. Languages ​​- English, Among the more than 400 local languages ​​and dialects, the main ones spoken are Hausa, Yoruba and Igbo.

OK. 50% of the population professes Islam (Nigeria belongs to the Organization of the Islamic Conference), 40% are Christians and 10% adherents of local religious beliefs.

History of Nigeria

In the 16th century Europeans entered what is now Nigeria. Its coast, which became the center of the slave trade, was called the “Slave Coast.” The colonization of Nigeria by Great Britain ended in the first decade of the 20th century. - in 1914, a single entity “Colony and Protectorate of Nigeria” arose within the modern borders (the northern part of British Cameroon was annexed to the country in 1961) of the Federation. Nigeria became an independent state on October 1, 1960, and on October 1, 1963, the Federal Republic of Nigeria was proclaimed.

The history of independent Nigeria is characterized by a continuous series of political crises, which are based on regional, ethnic and religious contradictions, intense personal rivalry among political leaders, rampant corruption, etc. Over the 43 years of independence, 10 regimes have changed in the country, incl. For 29 years, it was led by military leaders who seized power by force. Therefore, the military leadership was almost constantly faced with the question of returning the country to civilian rule.

The military entered the political arena of Nigeria in January 1966. They overthrew the government of the First Republic, but power passed to the Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces, Major General A.J. Aguiyi-Ironsi, who declared Nigeria a unitary state. On July 29, 1966, a new military coup took place, and the country was led by Lieutenant Colonel (later General) Yakubu Gowon. Despite Nigeria's return to a federal structure, mass pogroms and the exodus of the Igbo from the Northern region, as well as the withdrawal from the federation of the Eastern region - the homeland of the Igbo and their creation of a separatist state - the "Republic of Biafra" (May 1967) led to a bloody internecine war (July 1967 - January 1970). The war took approx. 2 million lives and brought victory to supporters of federalism.

The “oil boom” (by the mid-1970s, Nigeria ranked 5th in the world in oil production and became one of the world’s leading exporters) contributed to economic growth and some stabilization of the situation in Nigeria. However, Gowon's inconsistency in transferring power to a civilian government led to his overthrow. The new head of the country, General Murtala R. Muhammad, dealt a major blow to corruption, carried out administrative reform and made a number of other important decisions, the main one of which was the development of a clear program for the transfer of power to a civilian government. It was carried out by his successor, General Olusegun Obasanjo, who in 1979 surrendered his powers to the democratically elected president of the Second Republic, Shehu Shagari.

On New Year's Eve 1994, the military junta of General M. Buhari overthrew the Shagari government. The next coup in August 1985 brought General I. Babangida to power, who managed to hold general elections in 1993, which Moshood Abiola won. However, an attempt to disavow their results led to the fall of Babangida’s regime, and power was transferred to the so-called. to the interim transitional government of E. Shonekan.

The Third Republic fell when, in October 1993, power in Abuja was seized by the “Stone Age tyrant” General Sani Abacha, whose rule was characterized by a sharp deterioration in the socio-economic situation in the country, increasing corruption and embezzlement, and rampant repression. Nigeria has found itself in a period of widespread international isolation. The death of the dictator in June 1998 gave impetus to the resumption of the democratic process. Already on May 29, 1999, the military regime transferred power in the country to the President of the Fourth Republic, O. Obasanjo, elected in the general elections. In April 2003, Obasanjo was re-elected president for a second term.

Government and political system of Nigeria

Nigeria is a republic, the Constitution of 1999 is in force.
Nigeria is a federation of 36 states (Abia, Adamawa, Akwa Ibom, Anambra, Bauchi, Bayelsa, Benue, Borno, Cross River, Delta, Ebonyi, Edo, Ekiti, Enugu, Gombe, Imo, Jigawa, Kaduna, Kano, Katsina , Kebbi, Kogi, Kwara, Lagos, Nasarawa, Niger, Ogun, Ondo, Osun, Oyo, Plateau, Rivers, Sokoto, Taraba, Yobe, Zamfara), as well as the Federal Capital Territory, Abuja.
The largest cities: Lagos (13 million inhabitants), Ibadan, Ogbomosho, Kano, Oshogbo, Ilorin, Abeokuta, Port Harcourt, Zaria, Ilesha, Onicha, Iwo.

Government in Nigeria is carried out by three branches of government: legislative, executive and judicial. The highest legislative body is the National Assembly, consisting of the Senate and the House of Representatives.

The highest body of executive power is the president, who is the head of state, the head of the executive power of the Federation, and the Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces of the Federation. The President appoints a member of the same political party from which he is running for the post of Vice President. Ministers of the National Executive Council - the government of the Federation - are appointed by the President and then confirmed by the Senate. Executive authorities include the State Council, which exercises advisory functions under the president. The head of state and the highest executive body is the president. O. Obasanjo took office for a second four-year term on May 29, 2003. Vice President - Atiku Abubakar.

The President and deputies of the National Assembly are elected for a term of 4 years. The President is elected for no more than two terms. A candidate must obtain at least 1/4 of the votes in elections in at least 2/3 of the states of the Federation and the Federal Capital Territory. The Senate (109 members) consists of three senators from each state and one from the Federal Capital Territory. The House of Representatives (360 members) is elected from constituencies of approximately equal population size. The Senate and House of Representatives have their own speaker and deputy, elected by senators and members of the house from among themselves.

Prominent political leaders of Nigeria:

Nnamdi Azikiwe is the first indigenous Governor-General of the independent Federation of Nigeria. (1960-63), first President of the Federal Republic of Nigeria. (1963-66);

Tafawa Balewa - first prime minister of independent Nigeria (1960-66);

General Yakubu Gowon - head of the military regime (1966-75), returned and strengthened the federal structure of Nigeria, under his leadership the federal government won the internecine war of 1967-70;

General Murtala R. Muhammad - head of the military regime (1975-76), the most revered statesman in Nigeria. He launched a fight against corruption, carried out administrative reform, decided to move the capital to the geographical center of the country, and developed a schedule for the transfer of power to a civilian government;

General Olusegun Obasanjo - head of the military regime (1976-79), president of the Fourth Republic (1999 - present). During his first stay in power, he continued the initiatives of M. Muhammad and transferred (for the first time in Africa) power in the country to the legally elected civilian government of Shehu Shagari (1979-83). In 1999 and 2003 (re)democratically elected to the presidency. He brought the country out of political and economic isolation, ensured economic growth, gave a social orientation to government policy, created a legislative framework for the fight against corruption, etc.;

General Sani Abacha - head of the military regime, president (1993-98), introduced a tough police regime, launched repression, including the physical elimination of opponents, which led to a decline in the prestige and well-known isolation of Nigeria in the international arena; during his reign, Nigeria reached 1-1 1st place in the world in terms of the level of corruption of the state apparatus.

Executive power in the states is vested in governors, who are elected for a term of 4 years and must receive at least 1/4 of the votes in elections in at least 2/3 of local government areas.

There is a multi-party system in place. 30 parties were allowed to participate in the 2003 general elections (in 1999 - 3), but only the People's Democratic Party, the All-Nigeria People's Party, the Union for Democracy, the United People's Party of Nigeria, the National Democratic Party, and the People's Salvation Party are represented in the National Assembly.

Leading business organizations: National Association of Chambers of Commerce, Industry, Mines and Agriculture - NASSIMA, chambers of commerce and industry in all states of Nigeria, bilateral chambers of commerce and industry with leading foreign partners, etc. Among other public organizations, the Nigerian Labor Congress stands out.

The administration's internal policy is aimed at democratizing Nigerian society, fighting corruption, and resolving ethnic and religious differences. At the heart of modern economic and social policies are the tasks of reviving the declining economy, raising the standard of living of the population, returning Nigerians to productive work and creating new employment opportunities, orienting the country to benefit from economic globalization, and turning Nigeria into the center of the West African economy.

The government's foreign policy is aimed at strengthening the authority of the country, which is emerging from international isolation after a long period of military regimes in power. Priority attention is paid to the African direction. Obasanjo is one of the authors of the New Partnership for African Development (NEPAD) document. The document attempts to encourage African countries towards closer regional and continental integration and, in particular, to make the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) an effective instrument in this process. Nigeria takes an active part in peacekeeping operations in the West African region. As the leader of the ECOWAS peacekeeping contingent, she made a major contribution to the successful completion of the military conflict in Liberia and is actively engaged in unblocking the crisis in Sierra Leone. Nigerians support the initiatives of UN Secretary General K. Anna to reform this organization and advocate giving Africa two seats as permanent members in the updated Security Council, while laying claim to one of them.

Nigeria's armed forces are the largest in sub-Saharan Africa. Their number is 76.5 thousand soldiers and officers (1999), incl. There are 62 thousand ground forces, 9.5 thousand air forces and 5 thousand naval forces. Recruitment is carried out on a voluntary basis. Nigeria actively participates in UN peacekeeping operations, incl. forms the basis of the UN military contingent in Liberia (since 1990) and Sierra Leone (1997-2000).

Economy of Nigeria

Nigeria is an agricultural country with a developed oil industry. Despite significant natural and human resources, the lack of political stability, corruption, as well as the extremely low level of management at the macroeconomic level led to a long period of stagnation of the national economy. The dynamics of the country's economic development during the years of independence were determined by the extensive industrial development of hydrocarbon resources and the decline in agricultural production. Within the framework of the international division of labor, Nigeria has lost its role as a leading supplier of certain types of agricultural raw materials to the world market, maintaining its monocultural character and raw material orientation. The economy has acquired a stable fuel and mineral specialization, becoming one of the world's main net exporters of oil.

The symbiosis of the modern and traditional (informal) sectors of the economy, the significant scale of “shadow” business, controlling up to 76% of GDP, complicate reliable statistical analysis and limit the assessment of trends in its development. In 2001, GDP was estimated to be equivalent to US$105.9 billion, i.e. OK. $840 per capita. Nigeria is classified as one of the least developed countries in the world. Approximately people live below the poverty line. 45% of the population (2000). Nevertheless, the average annual growth rate of GDP (on average 3% in the 1990s and 3.5% in 2001) slightly exceeded the population growth rate, and there was a tendency for the country to slowly emerge from the period of economic stagnation. Inflation remained high (14.9% in 2001), which prevented stabilization at the macroeconomic level.

In the sectoral structure of the economy, agriculture accounts for 39% of GDP (2000), and employs the vast majority of the economically active population - 70% (1999). For industry, these figures are 33 and 10%, respectively, for the service sector - 28 and 20%.

Agriculture has been in deep decline over the past decades, having lost the ability to adequately provide the country's population with food and other products, as well as produce marketable products, the export of which would provide the country with significant foreign exchange earnings. Droughts and crop failures in the 1960s, increased migration from rural to urban areas, as well as increased income from the exploitation of oil resources, which made it possible to reorient the tastes of the population towards imported food, led to stagnation of the industry. The rise of agricultural production is hampered by an inadequate land use system: there are very few large modern agro-industrial enterprises in the country and the main production is concentrated on small farms while maintaining communal land ownership, which in northern Nigeria is complicated by the presence of feudal remnants. In combination with low soil fertility, inaccessibility of irrigation and the use of fertilizers, unsatisfactory marketing practices have also become a brake, leading to the formation of low purchase prices for agricultural products.

Agriculture in Nigeria produces commercial (export) crops, incl. (thousand tons, 2000) cocoa beans - 225, peanuts - 2783, soybeans - 372 (Nigeria occupies one of the leading places in Africa in their production), as well as oil palm products, cotton, rubber, sugar cane. Food crops are also grown for domestic consumption, incl. yam - 25,873, cassava - 32,697, corn - 5476, sorghum - 7520, millet - 5960, rice - 3277, etc.

Among cash crops, only cocoa continues to play a significant role in the country's commodity exports. Nigeria is one of the leading producers of cocoa beans and cocoa products, 4th in the world after Cote d'Ivoire, Ghana and Indonesia. The steady demand for Nigerian cocoa on the world market is explained primarily by its special taste.

The development of agricultural production and exports is among the priorities of the civil government, which is launching a massive campaign to achieve complete self-sufficiency in agricultural products and expand the volume of its exports across a wide range, incl. by ensuring guaranteed purchase prices, lending to producers, improving planting material, improving storage methods for products, using chemical fertilizers, etc.

The basis of livestock farming is (thousand heads, 2000): cattle - 19,830, goats - 24,300 and, to a lesser extent, sheep - 20,500. Most livestock farms, with approx. 90% of the livestock are located in the far north of the country, in the Sudanese belt, in a zone of tall grass savannas that serve as good pastures and are characterized by the absence of tsetse flies. The role of pig farming (4855 thousand heads) and poultry farming (126 million units, 2000) is increasing.

Fishing and seafood production are carried out in the waters of the coastal shelf of the Gulf of Guinea, in Lake Chad, in lagoons, rivers, as well as numerous water streams in the river delta. Niger. The fish catch reaches approx. 250 thousand tons (40% of the country's needs).

The petroleum industry is a leading sector of the Nigerian economy, producing approx. 20% of GDP, provided by approx. 65% of budget revenues and 95% of foreign currency earnings from foreign economic transactions. In accordance with the OPEC quota, Nigeria produces 2.0-2.1 million barrels. oil per day.

Exploration, development and production of oil both in the continental part of the country and on the coastal shelf are carried out mainly by joint companies formed by the Nigerian National Petroleum Corporation (NNPC) and foreign oil corporations, among which the leading place is occupied by Royal Dutch Shell (40-50% of production) , as well as Exxon, ENI, Agip, Elf Aquitaine, etc. Along with equity participation, financing of the oil industry is also carried out through the sale of NNOC's share in a number of such enterprises, carried out as part of the privatization program, as well as on the basis of production sharing contracts.

The gas industry has the potential to become another source of foreign exchange earnings. While Nigeria is forced to burn up to 75% of the gas accompanying oil production, approx. 12% of its quantity is pumped back into oil wells and only approx. 13% is used for industrial and domestic needs.

In 2000, the installed capacity of the Nigerian electricity sector was approx. 5900 MW, 15.9 billion kWh produced, incl. 64% of electricity comes from thermal power plants and 36% from hydroelectric power plants. The country's electric power industry is characterized by disruptions in the supply of electricity to consumers, incl. its periodic shutdowns. On a small scale (19 million kWh, 2000), Nigeria exports electricity to neighboring countries.

The capacity of the coal industry allows the annual production of approx. 150 thousand tons of coal. Other branches of the mining industry are also developed. Iron ore, tin concentrate, bauxite, columbite, copper and gold are produced. Among non-metallic minerals, bentonite, gypsum, magnesite, phosphates, talc, and barite are developed. Precious and semi-precious stones are mined in small quantities: sapphires, topazes and aquamarines.

The manufacturing industry is based on the principle of import substitution and is mainly limited to the production of consumer goods. Considering the high import component in raw materials and semi-finished products (approx. 60%), in the last two decades the capacity of manufacturing enterprises has been used at 25-30%. These include automobile assembly, metallurgy, certain types of textile industry, production of sugar, paper, plastics, etc.

The main type of transport is automobile, providing 95% of cargo and passenger transportation. In 2001, Nigeria's highway network reached 193.2 thousand km, incl. 59.9 thousand are paved roads, of which 1,194 km are expressways, and 133.3 thousand km are dirt roads.

The total length of railways is 3557 km (2001). Of these, 3505 km are narrow gauge (track width - 1067 mm) and only 52 km have a standard gauge (1435 mm). Two main railway lines stretch from south to north: Western, connecting Lagos with Nguru, and Eastern, Port Harcourt with Maiduguri. The first highway has a branch connecting Zaria to Kano. In addition, in the center of the country the highways are connected to each other by a section of track.

Nigeria has developed port systems, incl. the Delta port complex, including Warri, Koko and Sapele, the Tin Can and Apapa ports in Lagos, as well as ports in Port Harcourt, Calabar, Onne. Bonny and Burutu have ports for oil shipments. In 2002, the country's merchant fleet had St. 43 vessels with a displacement of 1000 tons and above, incl. 6 Foreign Ships Using the Nigerian Flag of Convenience. The fleet includes 29 oil tankers, one specialized tanker and four chemical tankers, 7 dry cargo carriers, one bulk carrier and a container ship. The length of river routes within the framework of inland water transport is 8575 km.

Pipeline transport is represented by oil pipelines with a length of 2042 km, oil product pipelines - 3000 km and gas pipelines - 500 km.

There are five in the country international airports: in Lagos (named after Murtala Mohammed), Abuja, Port Harcourt, Kano and Calabar. In addition, the country has up to 14 airports for local traffic. There are several civil airlines operating in the country.

There are 83 medium-wave, 36 ultra-short-wave and 11 short-wave radio stations (2001), 3 television stations, incl. 2 stations and 15 repeaters under state control (2002), 23.5 million radios and 6.9 million televisions are in use (1997), there are 500 thousand telephone lines (2000), 200 thousand subscribers cellular communications(2001), 11 Internet providers and 100 thousand Internet users (2000).

There are more than 90 commercial, trading and industrial banks operating in Nigeria. In addition to them, there are numerous financial organizations. At the head of the banking system is the Central Bank of Nigeria, which is responsible for developing monetary policy and exercises control over the banking system.

Nigeria's public debt, estimated at the beginning. 2003, amounted to 5.3 trillion naira (approx. 42.2 billion US dollars), incl. internal debt - 1.6 trillion (12.7 billion) and external - 3.7 trillion naira (29.5 billion US dollars). The civilian government advocates for foreign debt relief from the world's poorest countries, including Nigeria.

Nigerians assign one of the important places in the foreign economic sphere to the diversification of trade relations and the search for new partners, as well as foreign investors.

Science and culture of Nigeria

The Nigerian Academy of Sciences was established in 1977 - ca. 100 active members. Scientific research is coordinated by the Ministry of Science and Technology. Along with special scientific centers (such as the Institute of Tropical Agriculture), there are research centers at universities, as well as at ministries and departments of the country.

Since 1982, the Nigerian education system has been built in accordance with the “6-3-3-4” formula. From the age of 6, children receive primary education for six years (compulsory since 1992), then three years of secondary and three years of higher secondary education. Along with higher secondary schools, there are 56 teachers' colleges and 26 polytechnics. Four-year higher education is represented by 33 universities. The task has been set to completely eradicate illiteracy. Education is mainly funded by the state.

Nigeria is a country of ancient culture: the terracotta sculpture of the “Nok culture”, the bronze of Benin and Ife, as well as other cultural monuments, are widely represented in the museums of Lagos, Ife, Kano and other cities of the country with a rich exhibition.

Nigeria is one of the literary centers of the African continent. Along with the traditions of oral folk art, English-language literature developed. Nigeria is the homeland of Nobel Prize winner in literature (1986), playwright and poet Wole Soyinka. The names of such Nigerian writers as Chinua Achebe, Cyprian Ekwensi, Christopher Okigbo, Ken Saro-Wiwa and others are world famous.