Mountain systems of Kazakhstan: central Tien Shan. Tien Shan Mountains: photo, description, length, geographical location On what platform are the Tien Shan Mountains located

History of the discovery of the Tien Shan peaks

Inaccessible mountain steeps, always snowy, with almost sheer slopes, the highest peaks piercing their sharp peaks into the blue sky, harsh glaciers and snowstorms have protected the geographical mysteries of the Tien Shan for many centuries.

The honor of studying this mountainous country belongs to our domestic science.

The first explorer of the Tien Shan was the famous Russian geographer P.P. Semenov-Tyan-Shansky, who penetrated into the very heart of the Heavenly Mountains, to the Tengri-Tag massif. Following P.P. Semenov-Tyan-Shansky explored this little-studied area of ​​the country by N.A. Severtsov, I.V. Mushketov, I.V. Ignatiev and other Russian scientists, who with their works made an invaluable contribution to the study of the Tien Shan. But, not having the means to organize large expeditions and not receiving support from the tsarist government; lone explorers could not penetrate the remote areas of this mountainous country.

The Great October Socialist Revolution radically changed the life of the peoples of former Tsarist Russia. In the Soviet Union, the national economy, science, and culture reached their peak. From the first days of Soviet power, scientists of our country were provided with comprehensive state assistance; hundreds of large scientific institutions were created, large complex expeditions were organized to study many regions of our great Motherland.

Soviet people also came to the peaks of the Tien Shan. Neither stormy rivers nor high mountain ranges stopped them - they penetrated into the kingdom of eternal winter and tore off the mysterious covers from the mountain giants.

Discovery of Pobeda Peak in 1943 main peak The Tien Shan, with an altitude of 7439 m, was one of the largest geographical discoveries of the last twenty years.

Pobeda Peak

The vast mountainous country of Tien Shan lies in the very heart of Asia. Its mountain ranges stretch from west to east for more than two and a half thousand kilometers.

The spurs of the westernmost ranges of the Tien Shan - Talas, Chatkal, Fergana and Kuramin descend to the capital of the Uzbek SSR, the city of Tashkent. The Fergana, Chatkal and Kuramin ridges enclose the Fergana Valley from the north. The eastern spurs of the Tien Shan ranges reach the western edge of the Gobi Desert.

A characteristic feature of the Tien Shan is the latitudinal elongation of both the entire mountain region as a whole and most of its mountain ranges and ridges. In the meridional direction from north to south, the boundaries of the region extend only 300-400 km, and all of it fits within 40-44 degrees. northern latitude.

From the south, Tien Shan is separated from the mountainous regions of Kunlun and Altyn Tag, adjacent to Tibet, by the wide sandy Taklamakan desert. The Western Tien Shan is connected with the Pamirs by the Pamir-Alai mountains; The border between them is the fertile Fergana Valley.

The high, ever-snowy ranges of the Soviet Tien Shan feed many large rivers Central Asia- Or, Chu, Naryn (upper reaches of the Syr Darya), Ak-sai, Uzengegush, Sarydzhas, Tekes. A common feature of all Tien Shan drainages is that not a single drop of their water reaches the ocean, feeding the internal basins of rivers and lakes in Central Asia.

The entire mountainous region of the Tien Shan is usually divided into four parts. The Western Tien Shan includes mountain ranges and ridges located to the west of Lake Issyk-Kul. The Central Tien Shan includes the highest ridges of the mountain region located to the south of Lake Issyk-Kul, as well as to the east of it all the ridges up to and including the Meridional. The Kungei and Zailiysky ridges, located north of Lake Issyk-Kul, rise in the Northern Tien Shan. To the northwest of the Trans-Ili Ala-Tau rise. Chu-Ili mountains. Western, Central and Northern Tien Shan are located on the territory of the Soviet Union.

The Eastern Tien Shan includes all mountain ranges located to the east of the Meridional Range and located mostly on the territory of the western provinces of the People's Republic of China.

The Western Tien Shan is a widely branched system of mountain ranges and ridges located mainly on the territory of the Kyrgyz and partially Kazakh and Uzbek union republics. These include the Kyrgyz, Talas, Chatkal, Fergana, Kurama and a number of smaller ridges and their spurs, located over a wide area from west to east from Tashkent to Lake Issyk-Kul and from north to south, from the Ili River valley to the Fergana Valley.

The ridges of the Western Tien Shan are relatively accessible and explored. In terms of mountaineering, the most studied is the Kyrgyz Ala-Tau, whose ever-snowy peaks have been climbed many times. Soviet climbers have also visited the peaks of the Chatkal ridge more than once;

To the north of Lake Issyk-Kul, on the territory of the Kazakh SSR, there are two mountain ranges of the Northern Tien Shan, the Trans-Ili Ala-Tau and the Kungey. Ala-Tau, connected with the Chiliko-Kemin mountain cluster into one powerful mountain system. On its northern slopes, facing the Ili River valley, lies the capital of Kazakhstan - the city of Alma-Ata. The part of the Trans-Ili Ala-Tau adjacent to the capital is the most studied and developed by climbers.

Several mountaineering camps operate in this area, numerous peaks have been climbed, and the training of Central Asian mountaineers is mainly concentrated here.

The Central Tien Shan includes the highest mountain ranges and ridges. Here is the area of ​​the most powerful glaciation.

South of Lake Issyk-Kul, on the territory of the Kyrgyz SSR, there are two large mountain ranges of the Tien Shan - Terskey Ala-tau and Kok-shaal-tau

Terskey Ala Tau

Between them, on a vast highland, there are several smaller ridges Naryn-tau, At-bashi, Ak-shiyryak, Chakyr-korum, Borkoldoy and others.

Kokshaal-tau is the southernmost and, perhaps, least studied and developed by climbers ridge of the Tien Shan with peaks of about 6000 m (Kzyl-Asker 5899 m, Dankov Peak 5978 m, Alpinist Peak 5782 m, etc.).

Kok Shaal Tau

In terms of height, shape of the peaks and inaccessibility, this entire area is of very great scientific and sporting interest, so it attracts the attention of researchers and climbers.

To the east of Lake Issyk-Kul is the highest and most inaccessible part of the entire Tien Shan - the Khan Tengri massif. The largest (60 km) glacier of the Tien Shan - South Inylchek - is located here. There are many peaks in this area above 6000 m, the highest of which are Khan Tengri - 6995 and Pobeda Peak - 7439 m, the second highest mountain peak in the Soviet Union. The northernmost peaks on the globe are seven thousand meters, covered with masses of ice and snow; they, naturally, give rise to the most severe conditions and special inaccessibility. Many centuries ago, people passed by these mountains, saw a cluster of eternal snow giants from afar, but could not get close to them. Therefore, human imagination populated them with mysterious spirits and gave them appropriate names. Thus, the entire mountainous region is called Tien Shan, which in Chinese means “Heavenly Mountains”, the Khan-Tengri massif has the local name Tengri-tag translated from Uyghur - “mountains of spirits”, and the top of the massif acquired the name Khan-tengri. Tengri - in Russian "Lord of Spirits".

Khan Tengri

The Khan Tengri massif, consisting of a number of ridges and peaks, occupies the eastern part of the Central Tien Shan and until recently attracted the attention of scientists and climbers, promising them a lot of unknowns. The peaks of its ridges are extremely numerous, and the ascents made in this massif can be counted on one hand.

The orographic structure of the Khan Tengri massif is very unique. In its eastern part there is the Meridional Ridge, which crosses this part of the Central Tien Shan from north to south. From this ridge, in the latitudinal direction, the highest ridges of the Tien Shan extend to the west - the Stalin ridge, Sarydzhas, Boz-kyr (Eastern Kok-shaal-tau); to the east - Severny and Halyk-tau.

The Terskey Alatau ridge extends from the Sary-Dzhas ridge to the northwest, and the Kuylyu-Tau ridge serves as a continuation of the Sary-Dzhas ridge in the west. From the Boz-kyr ridge the Inylchek-tau ridge branches off to the west and from it, in turn, the Kaindy-katta ridge branches off.

The highest peaks of the massif stand near the Meridional Ridge and on it itself. Pobeda Peak rises in the Boz-kyr ridge, and to the north of it, in the Stalin ridge, stands Khan Tengri Peak.

The South Inylchek glacier flows west from the Meridional Ridge and receives tributary glaciers from the slopes of the Stalin, Sary-jas, Boz-kyr and Inylchek-tau ridges.

There are many forests in the Tien Shan. High mountain valleys, plateaus and mountain slopes are covered with lush grasses. Rich herds of collective and state farms graze on mountain pastures. The abundance of wild animals - mountain goats (tau-teke) and sheep (argali) - creates favorable conditions for the widespread development of hunting. Many minerals have been explored in the depths of the Tien Shan, promising broad prospects for the development of the mining industry.

The proximity of the snowy Tien Shan ranges to the capitals of the Kazakh and Kyrgyz Union Republics provides a wide field of activity for the development of mountaineering, one of the favorite sports of brave Soviet people - this unique school of courage. The governments of Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan pay due attention to the development of mountain sports in the republics; mountaineering in the area of ​​the Trans-Ili Ala-Tau ridge, near the city of Alma-Ata, ranks second after the Caucasus, and climbers of Kyrgyzstan have become famous for holding alpiniads - mass mountaineering training trips.

In the area of ​​the Khan Tengri massif, on an area of ​​about 10,000 square meters. km concentrated the highest peaks and the largest glaciers of the Tien Shan. Deep valleys separate the ridges. Their powerful glaciations are often associated with common firn basins.

The inaccessibility of the Khan Tengri region delayed its exploration for a long time. People did not go deep into this kingdom of eternal winter and told tales and legends about the mysterious country of Tengri Tag.

Only in 1856-1857. the great Russian geographer P. Semenov managed to lift the veil of mystery that covered this part of the Tien Shan. He was the first explorer to see Tengri Tag and set foot on its glacier. The remarkable description of his journey to the Tien Shan that he compiled still serves as an example of the work of scientific thought and amazes with the clarity and breadth of observations and conclusions.

Unfortunately, P.P. Semenov did not go into the depths of the Khan Tengri massif, and this area, until very recently, kept many mysteries. P.P. Semenov visited the Tien Shan only twice, but during his further activities he sent many Russian scientists there who continued his work. In 1886, I.V. Ignatiev visited the Tien Shan with the special purpose of penetrating the Khan Tengri massif. In addition to the Semenov and Mushketov glaciers, flowing north from the Sarydzhas ridge, I.V. Ignatiev was in the Inylchek valley, but did not reach the huge glacier lying in this valley. Without special equipment, he was unable to overcome the stone cover of his twenty-kilometer surface moraine. Other researchers of the Tien Shan were also frightened for a long time by its inaccessibility. The glory of the entire massif, especially the Khan Tengri peak, attracted several foreign scientists and climbers to it, but they also failed to unravel its secrets. Thus, in 1899, the Hungarian zoologist Almásy went to the Sary-Dzhas valley, but he failed to unravel the complex orography of the Khan Tengri massif. The following year, Swiss guides appeared with the Italian climber Borghese, but they were unable to climb the Inylchek glacier, which seemed impassable to them.

In 1902, a famous researcher of the Altai and Tien Shan mountains, professor of botany V.V. Sapozhnikov, was in this area. He did not limit himself to working in his specialty, but, in the tradition of famous Russian travelers; covered a very wide area of ​​research, made measurements of many peaks of the Khan Tengri massif, climbed glaciers and passes.

He determined the height of the Khan Tengri peak at 6950 m, reducing its actual height by only 45 m, and did this much more accurately than many previous and subsequent researchers.

V. at the same time, in 1902-1903. The Khan Tengri massif was visited by the German geographer and mountaineer Merzbacher. He managed to make several ascents to minor peaks and even walk the South Inylchek glacier to the foot of the Khan Tengri peak, the height of which he determined to be 7200 m. This scientist took overview photo panoramas and wrote up descriptions of the places he actually visited. But, unfortunately, he put some of his hypotheses and assumptions, which were later refuted by reality, on a par with facts. This caused great confusion in the orography of the Tien Shan, which Soviet scientists and climbers had to understand and put in final order.

To solve many of the mysteries of the Tien Shan, Soviet scientists and climbers penetrated deep into the Khantengri massif and overcame all its difficulties and dangers. Merzbacher justified his failures by saying that “the high peaks of the Tien Shan are an unsuitable place to satisfy the love of mountaineering.” Soviet climbers were able to prove that they do not single out the love of mountaineering as something self-sufficient, but always subordinate it to the main tasks set for the development of the Soviet physical education movement. Very often they use their mountaineering activities to serve research purposes. And if we talk about the love of sports, the satisfaction that athletes receive from mountaineering, or the fact that they are attracted to high and harsh mountains, then Soviet climbers have their own standard for this. They get more satisfaction the more difficult the climb was, the higher and more inaccessible the peak was, the more they collected interesting information for scientists, the more obstacles were encountered and overcome, the more friendly and stronger the team was, p. who share the joy of victory.

Much work on the study of the Tien Shan was carried out by Soviet scientists and climbers in a very short period. In 1929, the map of the Tien Shan was still full of blank spots, which had to be filled in by subsequent expeditions, specially prepared and equipped for work on glaciers and peaks.

Soviet climbers came to the Tien Shan together with scientists and entered its unexplored areas not only for sporting purposes. They solved scientific research problems, unraveled the complex orography of the region, studied glaciation, and compiled maps.

M. T. Pogrebetsky, now an Honored Master of Sports in mountaineering, headed the organization of the Ukrainian expedition to the Tien Shan, which worked in the Tengri Tag region for a number of years - from 1929 to 1933. At first it was a mountaineering sports group. It later grew into a comprehensive Ukrainian government expedition that did a lot of topographic survey work; geological exploration and geographical study of the Khan Tengri massif.

Pogrebetsky set the main sporting goal of his mountaineering group to climb Khan Tengri Peak. After two years of work on Inylchek, detailed reconnaissance of approaches and study of the route, on September 11, 1931, the Lord of Spirits was defeated. Soviet climbers climbed to its peak, dispelling the myth of the inaccessibility of Khan Tengri and conquering the first seven-thousandth peak. Soviet Union Pogrebetsky's group made this remarkable ascent along a route laid from the South Inylchek glacier.

In 1929-1930 on the other side of the Stalin Ridge, from the Northern Inylchek glacier, Khan Tengri was stormed by Moscow climbers V.F. Gusev, N.N. Mikhailov and I.I. Mysovsky. They were the first to lead horses to the South Inylchek glacier. However, in 1929 they were stopped by Lake Merzbacher, which separates the tongue of the North Inylchek glacier from the South Inylchek glacier, and they decided to change their route. In 1930, they found a pass in the Sary-Dzhas ridge (Soviet Press Pass) and passed through it to the Northern Inylchek glacier, explored it and explored the approaches to Khan Tengri. The following year, the group of G.P. Sukhodolsky went to the Northern Inylchek glacier through Lake Merzbacher, using a rubber inflatable boat, and along its rocky shores. The group climbed from the north to the slopes of Khan Tengri to an altitude of about 6,000 m, but retreated, making sure that there was no way to the top from this side. Having completed the reconnaissance task, she went downstairs.

Inylchek

In 1932, the work of Pogrebetsky’s expedition to Tengri Tag continued. At the same time, a mountaineering group from the Moscow House of Scientists under the leadership of Professor A. A. Letavet appeared for the first time in the Tien Shan. This small group, consisting of only 4 people, visited the origins of one of the main water arteries Central Asia - the Syr Darya River, climbed Sary-tor (5100 m) - the main peak of the Ak-shiyryak ridge, then went south, to the sources of the Dzhangart River. Here Letavet and his companions saw large glaciers and groups of high and difficult peaks of the Kok-shaaltau ridge. From here, through another pass, through the Terskey Ala-tau ridge, they returned to Przhevalsk, then crossed the northern Tien Shan ridges of Kungei Ala-tau and Trans-Ili Ala-tau and ended their route in the city of Alma-Ata.

Thus, the group crossed the entire high-mountainous Tien Shan from south to north and, with this kind of reconnaissance, determined several of their routes for the future.

In the next two years, A. A. Letavet’s group visited the sources of the Uzengegush River, in the middle part of the Kokshaal-tau ridge. On the way to this southernmost and most remote ridge of the Tien Shan, the climbers climbed one of the peaks of the Borkoldoy ridge, near its junction with the Chakyr-korum ridge.

They entered this area by going to the sources of the Dzhagololamai River, and discovered there a kind of mountaineering reserve - a group of glaciers and peaks up to 4500m high (5200) "It was an incredible chaos of peaks and glaciers, especially at the junction of it (the Borkoldoy ridge.) with Chakyr -korum; the earth here seemed to bristle with an endless number of needles and thorns"

“Dry fog” - the dust of the Taklamakan desert - hung over the mountains and did not make it possible to examine the peaks of the Kok-shaal-tau ridge from afar, and A. A. Letavet’s group moved further to the Kubergenty pass. From this pass one could see the sources of the Uzengegush and Ak-Sai rivers, collecting their waters from the glaciers of the northern slopes of the Kokshaal-tau ridge, which rises here in peaks close to 6,000 m in height. Having examined this part of the ridge, the climbers mapped a number of glaciers and peaks, gave names to the nameless peaks Kyzyl-Asker (Krasnoarmeyets, 5,899 m), Dzholdash (Comrade, 5,782 m) and named the large glaciers of the sources of Uzengegush in honor of the Soviet geographers S.G. Grigorieva and N.N. Palgova.

In 1934, Letavet's expedition again headed to the Kok-shaal-tau ridge, to the Kyzyl-Asker peak, and also somewhat east of it to the place where the Uzengegush River broke through the ridge. The expedition was replenished by young climbers I. E. Maron and L. P. Mashkov.

The group attempted to climb Kyzylasker Peak. In two days, the climbers crossed the glacier and climbed the slopes of this majestic peak to a considerable height. However, deep loose snow and the onset of bad weather delayed the ascent, and on the third day, the group descended into the valley, heading east, down the Uzengegush River, to the sources of its right tributary, the Chon-tura-su River. A glacier named after N. L. Korzhenevsky was examined here. In the middle of the glacier, the group discovered an isolated peak with a height of about 5,000 m and gave it the name Alpinist. Having climbed one observation peak at a height of 4,900 m, Professor Letavet finished his work. A two-day snowfall covered everything around with deep snow, so we had to leave this little-explored area, which still has many mysteries and awaits a well-equipped mountaineering expedition prepared for difficult sport ascents.

In 1936, A. A. Letavet laid out the route for his next expedition to the main peak of the Terskey Ala-tau ridge - Karakol Peak (5250 m) and to the Kuilyu-tau ridge. This year, the group of expedition participants was supplemented by V. S. Klimenkov and V. A. Kargin.

The Kuilyu-tau ridge remained little explored until 1936. Its snowy peaks were clearly visible from all the surrounding ridges and passes, but none of the researchers had ever gone into the depths of the Kuilyu-tau massif except Professor V.V. Sapozhnikov, who walked along its slopes and was in some of its gorges.

The Hungarian traveler Almásy, who also observed this ridge only from afar, expressed an unlikely, but intriguing assumption to scientists and climbers, that the main peak of Kuylyu-tau is only slightly inferior in height to Khan Tengri. The reconnaissance of this ridge was, therefore, main goal expeditions. Karakol Peak was of great sporting interest. It attracted climbers with its height, steep icy slopes, sharp ridge and trapezoid-shaped peak.

This peak is located deep in the gorge of the Karakolka River, only 40 km from the city of Przhevalsk. Having approached its foot, the climbers overcame the ice wall within two days and reached the long summit ridge, reaching almost 5000 m in the lowest eastern part of the peak height.

On the south side of the summit ridge one could see the Kuylyu-tau ridge and a glacier covered with a dense network of cracks with the Kuylyu River flowing from under its tongue. Pointed peaks of Kuilyu-tau, half-covered. clouds approaching from the west, looked unapproachable, and the climbers tried in vain to determine the gorge along which they could approach them. It was obvious that the Kuilyu glacier in the western part of the ridge could not serve as a path to the main peak, and the “keys to the door” should be looked for in the east.

For the purpose of further reconnaissance, Letavet's expedition passed Terskey Ala-Tau through the Chon-ashu pass to the Ottuk valley and, further, through the Tornu pass to the valley of the Kuilyu River. From the Tornu pass, the Kuylyu peaks are located relatively; far away, but they were hidden by continuous clouds.

From the beginning of the Sary-Dzhas gorge, the expedition turned into the gorge of the Malaya Taldy-su River and settled in a clearing, near the tongue of the glacier of the same name. On the second day, Letavet’s group walked the entire Maly Taldy-su glacier and in its upper reaches discovered an accessible pass leading to one of the glaciers of the Terekty river system. Near the glacier there was not a single prominent peak that could be mistaken for the lava peak of the ridge. The disappointed climbers, having returned to the camp, decided to change the further exploration plan in such a way as to exclude the descent into the Sary-Dzhas valley and the long climb into the neighboring gorge. This could be done by crossing the spur separating the gorges of the B. Taldy-su and M. Taldy-su rivers, and sending the horses as a guide to go around, towards. And so, the next day, the climbers achieved their goal. The brilliant completion of the reconnaissance replaced all doubts and disappointment. Letavet himself talks about this well: “We decided to try to find a passage directly to the upper reaches of the Bolshaya Taldy-su River, directly to the glaciers that feed it.

Sarah Jazz

Having climbed the right (eastern) branch of the Maly Taldy-su glacier and crossed the rocky ridge rising above the glacier circus, we actually found ourselves at the pass point of the ridge separating the Malaya and Bolshaya Taldy-su gorge. Below our feet lay the Bolshoi Taldy-su glacier, and right in front of us rose a powerful trapezoidal peak, sparkling with ice, rising about a one and a half kilometer sheer wall above the glacier. However, this peak could hardly be the one we were looking for. Its contours did not correspond to the descriptions of travelers who observed the peak from the upper reaches of the Sary-jas.

We quickly descended along a steep rocky slope onto the Bolshaya Taldy-su glacier in order to immediately begin the ascent to the saddle visible in its upper reaches. The last section before the saddle is very steep. Containing our excitement, we quickly force it. An involuntary exclamation of amazement escapes us and right in front of us, in the rays of the evening sun, a slender, pointed peak, amazing in its beauty, sparkles. With a two-kilometer wall it rises above the glacier and is almost not connected with the surrounding mountain system; climbing it must present exceptional difficulties. The peak is very close - we are separated only by a narrow cirque of a glacier flowing to the south and apparently belonging to the Terekty River system. It is quite obvious that this, finally, is the very peak in search of which we went to the heart of the Kuilyu ridge. But it is also obvious that its height can hardly exceed 5,500 m above sea level. Evening is creeping up unnoticed. We place our tent on the snowy area of ​​the saddle. Despite the severe frost, we didn’t zip up the tent for a long time and still admired the peak in the light of the moon; it was even more beautiful. Indeed, this is one of the most beautiful peaks I have ever seen. We decide to give the peak the name Stalin's Constitution Peak. We name the massive ice peak that we saw from the pass in memory of the then deceased president of the USSR Academy of Sciences, Alexander Petrovich Karpinsky."

The group did not attempt to climb the newly discovered peaks due to the obvious complexity of the route, the need to select a much stronger climbing team and better equipment. The discovery in 1943 of Pobeda Peak, the main peak of the Tien Shan with a height of 7439 m, was one of the largest geographical discoveries of the last twenty years.

Source:

Petr Petrovich Semenov - Russian geographer, botanist, statistician. In 1849 he graduated from St. Petersburg University and became a member of the Russian Geographical Society. In 1853, Semenov went abroad and attended lectures at the University of Berlin for three years. The idea of ​​the Tien Shan expedition arose in him on the eve of his trip to Europe. Semenov himself wrote about this in his memoirs: “My work on Asian geography led me... to a thorough acquaintance with everything that was known about inner Asia. I was especially attracted to the most central of the Asian mountain ranges - the Tien Shan, which had not yet been touched by a European traveler and which was known only from meager Chinese sources... To penetrate deep into Asia to the snowy peaks of this unattainable ridge, which the great Humboldt, based on the same meager Chinese information, I considered it volcanic, and to bring him several samples from the fragments of rocks of this ridge, and home - a rich collection of flora and fauna of a country newly discovered for science - that was what seemed the most tempting feat for me.”

Pyotr Semenov began to carefully and comprehensively prepare for the trip to the Tien Shan. In 1853 and 1854 he visited the Alps and made numerous excursions in the mountains there on foot, without a guide, with a compass, doing geological and botanical research. He also visited Vesuvius, making about two dozen ascents on it. Returning to Russia in 1856, Semenov received consent from the Council of the Geographical Society to equip him for the expedition. At a time when Semenov was already preparing for the long journey, at the foot of the Trans-Ili Alatau - one of the northern ranges of the Tien Shan - the Russians founded the fortification of Vernoye (now the city of Almaty).

At the beginning of May 1856, Pyotr Semenov set off on his journey. “...Arrived by railway to Moscow and further to Nizhny along the highway, bought a Kazan-made tarantass there and rode on postal ones along the great Siberian highway...” he told about the beginning of the journey in his memoirs. The route ran through Barnaul, Semipalatinsk, Kopal to the Vernoye fortification - to the foot of the Trans-Ili Alatau.

2 Lake Issyk-Kul

The study of the Tien Shan began with a visit to Issyk-Kul. With great difficulty, the traveler reached the then deserted shores of this mountain lake, covered only with groves of small trees and tall bushes. “Only occasionally,” he wrote, “from such groves do the felt yurts of Kyrgyz shepherds appear white and the long neck of a Bactrian camel is exposed, and even more rarely, a large herd jumps out from the vast forest of dense reeds bordering the grove wild boars or the formidable ruler of these reed thickets - a bloodthirsty tiger.”

Issyk-Kul is a huge lake, one of the deepest in Europe and Asia. About 80 mountain rivers flowing into Issyk-Kul, originating in the Tien Shan mountains, but not a single river flows out of it. At the time of Semenov’s travels, information about Issyk-Kul was insignificant. Geographers believed, for example, that it was from this lake that one of the large Central Asian rivers, the Chu River, began. Semenov's two trips to Issyk-Kul, especially the second, when he visited its western tip, were marked by great scientific results. Having passed through the narrow Boom Gorge, through which the Chu noisily carries its waters, Semenov reached the Issyk-Kul coast. Here he conducted a series of geological and geographical observations and for the first time established that the Chu begins not from the lake, but in one of the mountain valleys of the Tien Shan. In his letter sent to the Russian Geographical Society, Semenov wrote: “My second big trip to the Chu River exceeded my expectations with its success: I not only managed to cross the Chu, but even reached Issyk-Kul this way, i.e. its western an extremity on which no European has yet set foot and which no scientific research has touched.”

Semenov’s observations established that the Chu, before reaching Issyk-Kul, turns sharply in the opposite direction from the lake, crashing into the mountains rising on the western side of Issyk-Kul and, finally, bursting into the Boom Gorge.

3 First ascent of the Tien Shan

The following year, 1857, Semenov went to the mountains. His companion was the artist Kosharov, an art teacher at the Tomsk gymnasium. Having left Verny, the travelers reached the southern shore of Issyk-Kul, and from there, through the anciently famous Zaukinsky Pass, they penetrated to the upper reaches of the Syr Darya, which had not yet been reached by anyone before them.

Having passed through the forest zone of the Tien Shan, Semenov left the detachment accompanying him with packs and camels at the last fir trees and continued climbing, accompanied by Kosharov and several companions. “At last we reached the top of the pass, which presented me with an unexpected sight; the mountain giants were no longer in front of me, and in front of me lay an undulating plain, from which snow-covered peaks rose in relatively low hills. Between them were green lakes, only partially covered with ice, and where there was no ice, flocks of beautiful scoters swam on them. The hypsometric measurement gave me 3,380 meters for the absolute height of the Zaukinsky Pass. I felt a noise in my ears, and it seemed to me that they would immediately bleed.”

The travelers continued south along the rolling highlands. In front of them lay a vast syrt plateau, on which were scattered small semi-frozen lakes, located between relatively low mountains, but covered on the tops with snow, and on the slopes with the luxurious greenery of alpine meadows. Luxurious meadows with large, bright flowers of blue and yellow gentians, lavender bathworts, white and yellow buttercups covered all the hillsides. But most beautiful of all were the vast fields, completely overgrown with the golden heads of a special, previously undescribed type of onion, which later received the name Semenov’s onion from botanists.

From the top of one of the mountains, travelers saw the upper reaches of the Naryn tributaries flowing from the Syrt lakes. Thus, for the first time, the sources of the vast river system of Jaxartes were reached by a European traveler. From here the expedition moved back.

4 Second ascent of the Tien Shan

Soon Semenov made a second, even more successful ascent of the Tien Shan. This time the expedition route went in a more eastern direction. Having climbed the Karkara River, a significant tributary of the Ili River, then along Kok-Dzhar, one of the upper rivers of Karkara, the traveler climbed a pass of about 3,400 meters, separating Kok-Jar from Sary-Dzhas.

“When we got ... to the top of the mountain pass,” wrote Semenov, “we were blinded by an unexpected sight. Directly south of us rose the most majestic mountain range I had ever seen. It all, from top to bottom, consisted of snow giants, of which I could count at least thirty to the right and left of me. This entire ridge, together with all the spaces between the mountain peaks, was covered with an unbroken veil of eternal snow. Just in the middle of these giants stood one, sharply separated by its colossal height, a snow-white, pointed pyramid, which seemed from the height of the pass to be twice as high as the other peaks.”

This is how the Khan Tengri peak was discovered, which until recently was considered the highest in the Tien Shan. Having visited the sources of Sary-Dzhas, Semnov discovered the vast glaciers of the northern slope of Khan Tengri, from which Sary-Dzhas originates. One of these glaciers was subsequently named after Semenov.

In the upper reaches of the Sary-Jaz, Semenov made another interesting discovery. He was the first researcher to see with his own eyes the huge mountain sheep of the Tien Shan - the kochkar - an animal that zoologists considered completely extinct.

On the way back to the foot of the Tien Shan, Semenov took a different road, following the valley of the Tekesa River. That same summer he explored the Trans-Ili Alatau, visited the Katu area in the Ili Plain, the Dzhungar Alatau and Lake Ala-Kul. The completion of the expeditions of 1856 - 1857 Semenov visited two mountain passes of Tarbagatai.

By imperial decree on November 23, 1906, for his services in the first exploration of the Tien Shan, the prefix “Tian-Shansky” was added to his surname “with descending descendants.”

Stunningly beautiful Tan Shan mountains surrounded by pristine nature. ( 30 photos)

To the Dzhukuchak pass.

We begin our journey from the shore of Issyk-Kul. The water of the lake cannot be called anything other than crystal; it seems that all the cosmic energy accumulated by the surrounding glaciers, the power of the sun and wind, is concentrated in this giant sapphire in the silver frame of the mountains. There is also a village with an interesting name - Tamga. The name comes from a stone lying among the hills south of the lake. The stone is engraved with an inscription from the 12th century - “OM MANI PADME HUM” - translated: “glory be to the lotus jewel”, this is an old Buddhist prayer.

Northern slope of the Terskey Ala-Too ridge. Early morning, grass wet with dew, blue geraniums in the shade of fir trees. The Silver River rustles in the gorge. Clouds quickly pass over nearby peaks. The greenery is very bright in the dazzling white light of the sun's rays. The paints just beg to be applied to the canvas. The going is hard, the climb is steep. Suddenly the trees part and a wide valley opens up in front of us. Ahead on the left bank are the Tseban tents.

They are very hospitable people, treating passers-by to tea, flatbreads with butter, and other things. It is noteworthy that you can pay for help with an ordinary rope. All those who have traveled through Central Asia will confirm that rope is the greatest value in these parts.

Meanwhile, clouds obscured the sky, rare snowflakes appeared, and gusts of cold wind flew from the glaciers. Altitude 3,400 meters, cold, arms and legs go numb.

Petrov Glacier.
Ahead, all white, from the foot to the base, is the Ak-Shyirak massif, translated as White Shin. The peaks of the mountains on the northern shore of Issyk-Kul are visible behind. This majestic massif is so beautiful that it looks like magic castle snow queen. There is a village nearby, there is at least some kind of civilization here. Cars are driving, and on one of the dump trucks we reached the base of mining prospectors who intended to mine gold here. We go to visit them, intending to get food.

Cars are driving, and on one of the dump trucks we reached the base of mining prospectors who intended to mine gold here. We go to visit them, intending to get food.

The discipline at the mine is very strict, they work in shifts for ten hours a day, for 2-3 weeks, during the shift there is prohibition, there is no alcohol at all. We were pleasantly surprised by the dining room; we were given delicious food and set on our way.

We had to climb the Petrov glacier, 15 km long, to the Jaman-Su pass (4,600 meters) and descend to cross the massif in the middle.

Walking on flat ice, lightly sprinkled with pebbles, is simply a pleasure! Our Tibetan bell enlivened the crystal landscape around us.

Rising higher, we see rivers cutting their way through the ice, icicles, stone mushrooms (the cap is a stone 2-3 meters, and the base is made of ice). The blinding light makes you dizzy.

But then a difficult section of the road began. The legs begin to sink into the crust, and the excess carbon dioxide in the blood forces one to stop. The sun burns your skin. And here is the pass. From here you can see glaciers, small lakes in sinkholes, sheer walls and crevasses, broken peaks and hanging glaciers.

All passes have some amazing property: when passing them, it’s as if you stop your entire previous life behind you, and something completely new opens up before you.

Panorama of the Tien Shan.
The power lines told us where to go. The ascent is gentle; the road above, which was good at first, turned out to be destroyed and washed away. Hour after hour we rise, the rain gives way to pellets. Then grass appeared, but not for long; it was replaced by an impassable embankment of small stones. Finally, completely exhausted, we climbed up and were more than rewarded for the torment of the climb.

All around you can see glaciers and ribbons of rivers sliding into the valley. A golden eagle circles overhead.

The spaces that open up are simply incredible! Only in the mountains can you take in hundreds of kilometers at a glance! A very strong wind blows tightly, without gusts, it seems that you can lie down on it.

On the borders of five countries of Central Asia there are beautiful and majestic mountains - the Tien Shan. On the Eurasian mainland they are second only to the Himalayas and Pamirs, and are also one of the largest and most extensive Asian mountain systems. The Heavenly Mountains are rich not only in minerals, but also in interesting geographical facts. The description of any object is built from many points and important nuances, but only complete coverage of all directions will help to create a complete geographical image. But let's not rush, but let's dwell in detail on each section.

Figures and facts: all the most important things about the Heavenly Mountains

The name Tien Shan has Turkic roots, because the peoples of this particular linguistic group have inhabited this territory since time immemorial and still live in this region. If translated literally, the toponym will sound like Heavenly Mountains or Divine Mountains. The explanation for this is very simple, the Turks from time immemorial worshiped the sky, and if you look at the mountains, you get the impression that with their peaks they reach the very clouds, most likely that is why the geographical object received such a name. And now, some more facts about the Tien Shan.

• Where does the description of any object usually begin? Of course, from numbers. The length of the Tien Shan mountains is more than two and a half thousand kilometers. Believe me, this is a pretty impressive figure. To compare, the territory of Kazakhstan extends for 3,000 kilometers, and Russia extends for 4,000 kilometers from north to south. Imagine these objects and appreciate the scale of these mountains.
• The height of the Tien Shan mountains reaches 7000 meters. The system has 30 peaks with a height of more than 6 kilometers, while Africa and Europe cannot boast of a single such mountain.
• I would especially like to highlight the highest point of the Heavenly Mountains. Geographically, it is located on the border of Kyrgyzstan and the Republic of China. There has been a very long debate around this issue, and neither side wants to give in. The highest peak of the Tien Shan mountains is the ridge with the triumphant name - Victory Peak. The height of the object is 7439 meters.

Location of one of the largest mountain systems in Central Asia

If you transfer the mountain system onto a political map, the object will fall on the territory of five states. More than 70% of the mountains are located in Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan and China. The rest comes from Uzbekistan and Tajikistan. But the highest points and massive ridges are located in the northern part. If we consider geographical position the Tien Shan mountains from the regional side, then this will be the central part of the continent of Asia.

Geographical zoning and relief

The territory of the mountains can be divided into five orographic regions. Each has its own unique topography and ridge structure. Pay attention to the photo of the Tien Shan mountains, which is located above. Agree, the grandeur and stateliness of these mountains evoke admiration. Now, let’s take a closer look at the zoning of the system:

• Northern Tien Shan. This part is almost entirely located on the territory of Kazakhstan. The main ridges are Zailiysky and Kungey Alatau. These mountains are distinguished by their average height (no more than 4000 m) and highly rugged terrain. There are many small rivers in the region that originate from glacial peaks. The region also includes the Ketmen Ridge, which Kazakhstan shares with Kyrgyzstan. On the territory of the latter, there is another ridge of the northern part - the Kyrgyz Alatau.
• Eastern Tien Shan. Of the largest parts of the mountain system, we can distinguish: Borokhoro, Bogdo-Ula, as well as medium and small ranges: Iren-Khabyrga and Sarmin-Ula. The entire eastern part of the Heavenly Mountains is located in China, mainly where the permanent settlement of the Uighurs is located; it is from this local dialect that the ranges received their names.
• Western Tien Shan. This orographic unit occupies the territories of Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan. The largest is the Karatau ridge, and then comes the Talas Alatau, which got its name from the river of the same name. These parts of the Tien Shan mountains are quite low, the relief drops to 2000 meters. This is because this is an older region, the territory of which has not undergone repeated mountain building. Thus, the destructive power of exogenous factors did its job.
• Southwestern Tien Shan. This region is located in Kyrgyzstan, Uzbekistan and Tajikistan. In fact, this is the lowest part of the mountains, which consists of the Fregan ridge, framing the valley of the same name.
• Central Tien Shan. This is the highest part of the mountain system. Its ranges occupy the territory of China, Kyrgyzstan and Kazakhstan. It is in this part that almost all six-thousanders are located.

"Gloomy Giant" - the highest point of the Heavenly Mountains

As mentioned earlier, the highest point of the Tien Shan Mountains is called Victory Peak. It is easy to guess that the toponym got its name in honor of a significant event - the victory of the USSR in the most difficult and bloody war of the 20th century. Officially, the mountain is located in Kyrgyzstan, near the border with China, not far from the autonomy of the Uyghurs. However, for a long time the Chinese side did not want to recognize the ownership of the object by the Kyrgyz, and even after documenting the fact, it continues to look for ways to take possession of the desired peak.

This object is very popular among climbers; it is on the list of five seven-thousanders that must be conquered to receive the title “Snow Leopard”. Near the mountain, just 16 kilometers to the southwest, is the second highest peak of the Divine Mountains. We are talking about Khan Tengri - highest point Republic of Kazakhstan. Its height is only slightly less than seven kilometers and is 6995 meters.

Centuries-old history of rocks: geology and structure

In the place where the Tien Shan Mountains are located, there is an ancient belt of increased endogenous activity; these zones are also called geosynclines. Since the system has a fairly decent height, this suggests that it was subjected to secondary uplift, although it has quite a ancient origin. Research shows that the base of the Heavenly Mountains is composed of Precambrian and Lower Paleozoic rocks. The mountain strata were subjected to long-term deformations and the influence of endogenous forces, which is why the minerals are represented by metamorphosed gneisses, sandstones and typical limestone and slate.

Since much of this region was flooded during the Mesozoic, the mountain valleys are covered with lacustrine sediments (sandstone and clay). The activity of glaciers also did not pass without a trace; morainic deposits stretch from the highest peaks of the Tien Shan mountains and reach the very border of the snow line.

The repeated uplift of the mountains in the Neogene had a very significant impact on their geological structure; relatively “young” volcanic-type rocks are found in the parent basement. It is these inclusions that are the mineral and metallic minerals in which the Divine Mountains are very rich.

The lowest part of the Tien Shan, which is located in the south, has been exposed to exogenous agents for thousands of years: the sun, winds, glaciers, temperature changes, and water during flooding. All this could not but affect the structure of the rocks; nature greatly battered their slopes and “exposed” the mountains to the very parent rock. The complex geological history influenced the heterogeneity of the Tien Shan relief, which is why high snowy peaks alternate with valleys and dilapidated plateaus.

Gifts of the Heavenly Mountains: minerals

A description of the Tien Shan Mountains cannot do without mentioning mineral resources, because this system brings very good income to the states in whose territories it is located. First of all, these are complex conglomerates of polymetallic ores. Large deposits are found in all five countries. Most of the minerals in the depths of the mountains are lead and zinc, but you can find something rarer. For example, Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan have established antimony mining, and there are also separate deposits of molybdenum and tungsten. In the southern part of the mountains, near the Fregan Valley, coal is mined, as well as other fossil fuels: oil and gas. Rare elements found include strontium, mercury and uranium. But most of all, the territory is rich in building materials and semi-precious stones. The slopes and foothills of the mountains are strewn with small deposits of cement, sand and various types of granite.

However, many mineral resources are not accessible for development, because the infrastructure is very poorly developed in mountainous regions. Mining in hard-to-reach places requires very modern technical means and large financial investments. States are in no hurry to develop the subsoil of the Tien Shan and often transfer the initiative to the private hands of foreign investors.

Ancient and modern glaciation of the mountain system

The height of the Tien Shan mountains is several times higher than the snow line, which means it is no secret that the system is covered by a huge number of glaciers. However, the situation with glaciers is very unstable, because in the last 50 years alone, their number has decreased by almost 25% (3 thousand square kilometers). For comparison, this is even larger than the area of ​​the city of Moscow. The depletion of snow and ice cover in the Tien Shan threatens the region with a serious environmental disaster. Firstly, it is a natural source of nutrition for rivers and alpine lakes. Secondly, this is the only source of fresh water for all living things that inhabit the mountain slopes, including local peoples and settlements. If changes continue at the same pace, then by the end of the 21st century, the Tien Shan will lose more than half of its glaciers and will leave four countries without a valuable water resource.

Non-freezing lake and other water bodies

The most high mountain The Tien Shan is located near the highest mountain lake in Asia - Issyk-Kul. This object belongs to the state of Kyrgyzstan, and is popularly called the Unfreezing Lake. It's all about low pressure at high altitude and water temperature, thanks to which the surface of this lake never freezes. This place is the main tourist area of ​​the region; on an area of ​​more than 6 thousand square kilometers, there is a huge number of high-mountain resorts and various recreational areas.

Another picturesque water body of the Tien Shan is located in China, literally a hundred kilometers from the main trading city Urumqi. We are talking about Lake Tienshi - this is a kind of “Pearl of the Heavenly Mountains”. The water there is so clean and transparent that it is difficult to realize the depth because it seems that you can literally reach the bottom with your hand.

In addition to lakes, the mountains are cut by a huge number of river valleys. Small rivers originate from the very tops and are fed by melted glacial waters. Many of them are lost on the mountain slopes, others unite into larger bodies of water and carry their waters to the foot.

From picturesque meadows to icy peaks: climate and natural conditions

Where the Tien Shan Mountains are located, natural zones replace each other with height. Due to the fact that the orographic units of the system have heterogeneous relief, different natural zones may be located at the same level in different parts of the Heavenly Mountains:

• Alpine meadows. They can be located both at an altitude of more than 2500 meters and at 3300 meters. The peculiarity of this landscape is the lush, hilly valleys that surround bare rocks.
• Forest zone. Quite rare in this region, mainly in inaccessible high mountain gorges.
• Forest-steppe. The trees in this zone are low, mostly small-leaved or coniferous. To the south, the meadow and steppe landscape is more clearly visible.
• Steppe. This natural area covers foothills and valleys. There is a huge variety of meadow grasses and steppe plants. The further south the region, the more clearly visible is the semi-desert and in some places even desert landscape.

The climate of the Heavenly Mountains is very harsh and unstable. It is influenced by opposing air masses. In summer, the Tien Shan Mountains are under the rule of the tropics, and in winter, polar currents dominate here. In general, the region can be called quite arid and sharply continental. In summer there are often dry winds and unbearable heat. In winter, temperatures can drop to record levels, and frosts often occur in the off-season. Precipitation is very unstable, with most of it occurring in April and May. It is the unstable climate that influences the reduction in the area of ​​ice sheets. Also, sudden changes in temperature and constant winds have a very negative effect on the topography of the region. The mountains are slowly but surely being destroyed.

An untouched corner of nature: animals and plants

The Tien Shan Mountains have become home to a huge number of living beings. The fauna is extremely diverse and varies significantly depending on the region. For example, the Northern part of the mountains is represented by European and Siberian types, while the Western Tien Shan is inhabited by typical representatives of the Mediterranean, African and Himalayan regions. You can also safely meet typical representatives of mountain fauna: snow leopards, snowcocks and mountain goats. The forests are inhabited by common foxes, wolves and bears.

The flora is also very diverse; fir and Mediterranean walnut can easily coexist in the region. In addition, a huge number of medicinal plants and valuable herbs are found here. This is a real phyto-pantry of Central Asia.

It is very important to protect the Tien Shan from human influence; for this purpose, two reserves and one national park have been created in the region. There are so few places left on the planet with untouched nature, so it is important to devote every effort to preserving this wealth for posterity.

Kyrgyz, Trans-Ili Alatau, Kungey-Alatau, Terskey-Ala-Too. The Middle Tien Shan includes the Pskem, Chatkal, Kuramin, Fergana, etc. ridges, and the Southern Tien Shan, which is divided by the last ridge into the eastern and western parts: Nuratau, Turkestan, Zeravshan, Gissar, Alai (in the west) and At- Bashi, Kakshaal-Too (in the east). The mountain ranges have an average height of 3000-4000 m and are dissected by valleys through which large rivers flow: Pskem, Chatkal, Syrdarya, Zeravshan, Surkhob, Naryn, Tekes, etc. Numerous glaciers and major centers glaciations - Khan Tengri mountain range, Pobeda Peak, Alai Range. There are many large lakes: Issyk-Kul (area 6236 km2, according to other sources - 6330 km2, altitude 1608 m), Song-Kol, Chatyr-Kul, Bagramkul, Turfanskoye, etc. The belt landscape zoning is well expressed. The climate is sharply continental and arid. The amount of precipitation increases with height and in the glacial-nival belt is 1600 mm/year. In the internal (intermountain) depressions, 200-400 mm of precipitation falls per year. Due to the significant dryness of the climate, the snow line in the Tien Shan is located at an altitude of 3600-3800 m, and in the Central Tien Shan even at an altitude of 4200-4500 m.

Geological structure and minerals. The Tien Shan is part of the Ural-Mongolian (Ural-Okhotsk) folded geosynclinal belt. In the north, the folded structures have a northwestern and sublatitudinal strike, and in the south, a sublatitudinal strike. After the Hercynian folding, most of the Tien Shan was peneplainized. Mountain building, which created the modern high-mountain relief, began in the Oligocene and was especially evident in the Pliocene and Anthropocene. Differentiated tectonic movements led to the formation of stepped relief, powerful erosion, the development of deep river valleys, and the emergence of glaciation centers (see map).

According to the characteristics of the geological structure, the Tien Shan is divided into Northern, Middle and Southern. The first is a Caledonian folded structure and is separated by a deep tectonic suture - the suture (the so-called “Nikolaev line”) from the younger systems of the Middle and Southern Tien Shan. The Southern Tien Shan is a Hercynian structure, and the Middle Tien Shan occupies an intermediate position.

The Northern (Caledonian) Tien Shan includes the North Kyrgyz zone, superimposed on the eastern part of the Kokchetav-Muyunkum massif, which was heavily reworked during the Caledonian era. The Early Precambrian foundation of this zone is exposed in the Makbal horst and makes up the buried massifs: Muyunkum and Issyk-Kul, composed of Archean gneiss complexes and linear folded zones of the Early Proterozoic. On this folded foundation in the Middle Riphean, troughs were formed, filled with terrigenous-carbonate strata, unconformably overlain by basic volcanics and siliceous shales of the Upper Riphean (Terskey series). Vendian deposits, represented by terrigenous rocks (), sharply unconformably overlap the Riphean strata. To the south, Vendo-Early Cambrian and Middle Cambrian-Ordovician island-arc volcanics and marginal marine terrigenous strata are common. At the end of the Ordovician and at the end of the Silurian - Early-Middle Devonian, uplifts and deformations began in the north. The introduction of huge granite intrusions, widely developed in the Kyrgyz zone, dates back to this time. During the Hercynian stage, in an environment of blocky differentiated movements, terrestrial volcanics, red rocks and terrigenous-carbonate deposits with a thickness of 2-4 km accumulated in different places.

The middle Tien Shan is limited from the north by the “Nikolaev line”, and from the southwest by the Beltau-Kurama volcanic belt and the eastern continuation of the Syrdarya massif, on which this zone is partially superimposed. To the east of the Thalasso-Fergana fault, the Middle Tien Shan narrows and is cut off by the At-Bashyn fault. The middle Tien Shan is composed of Vendian tillite-like conglomerates, carbonate sediments and siliceous-argillaceous vanadium-bearing shales (up to 3 km), and Ordovician carbonate-terrigenous sediments (up to 2.5 km). The Silurian, represented by continental molasse with volcanics, is developed only in the Chatkal ridge. This Caledonian complex is unconformably overlain by continental variegated clastic strata of the Middle Devonian (1.5 km), marine sandy-conglomerate and carbonate-clayey deposits of the Upper Devonian (3.5 km). In the east of the zone, the carbonate-terrigenous Lower Carboniferous (3 km) and the siliceous-clayey Middle Carboniferous (2 km) are developed. The Beltau-Kurama volcanic belt rests on Riphean metamorphites and carbonate-terrigenous sediments (more than 5 km) at the top with basalts (Lower Carboniferous). Above is a thick (up to 6 km) continental sequence of basalts, andesites, dacites and comagmatic granitoids belonging to the Middle-Upper Carboniferous. The Permian consists of coarse continental molasse and rhyolitic ignimbrites, tuffs and lavas. The deposits of the Hercynian complex are less dislocated than the Caledonian complex. East of the Thalasso-Fergana fault, the Middle Tien Shan includes the Dzhetymtau, Moldo-Too and Naryn-Too ridges, in which the Hercynian complex forms synclinoriums, and the Caledonian complex appears in the uplifts.

The Southern Tien Shan extends in the latitudinal direction, tapering in the east, and is divided into three parts: western (Kyzylkum), central (Gissar-Alai) and eastern (At-Bashy-Kakshaal). From the south, the folded systems of the Southern Tien Shan are limited by the Afghan-Tajik and Tarim Precambrian massifs. In the central part, which has a width of up to 200 km, a number of zones with different types of sections are distinguished from the north and south: Northern, Kapa-Chatyr, South Fergana, and to the south - Turkestan-Alai and Zeravshan-Gissar zones. From the south, the last zone is limited by the South Gissar volcanic belt. To the south, Precambrian rocks of the Afghan-Tajik massif are exposed. The structure of the Southern Tien Shan is characterized by the widespread development of Hercynian thrusts and southern vergence nappes. The formation of the system due to the destruction of the Precambrian continental crust dates back to the beginning of the Paleozoic, as evidenced by the presence of ophiolites of this age. In the Silurian - the first half of the Carboniferous, limestones accumulated on massifs with continental crust, and clays and flysch accumulated on oceanic crust. The thickness of the deposits reached 8 km. The beginning of deformations dates back to the middle of the Middle Carboniferous, as evidenced by powerful olistostromes and gravitational covers. Uplifts intensified at the end of the Carboniferous and Permian. All deposits are intruded by granites. To the east, all zones narrow, and in the south they border on the Tarim massif.

In the Mesozoic and Cenozoic, the Northern and Middle Tien Shan developed somewhat differently from the Southern Tien Shan. In the Northern Tien Shan in the Triassic-Eocene there was a platform with a thin cover of continental clastic deposits that filled a number of depressions. In the Jurassic there was an intensification of movements, and from the Oligocene the pace of tectonic movements increased sharply and the range of movements was 8-10 km in the Pliocene. Along with powerful mountain ranges, large intermountain depressions with coarse molasse and foothill troughs (Frunzensky, Ilisky, Alakolsky) also developed. The southern Tien Shan at the beginning of the Mesozoic was peneplanated, but in the Late Triassic - Early Jurassic, near-fault basins were formed - East and South Fergana, etc. In the first of them, a three-kilometer thick layer of continental coal-bearing sediments was deposited, which underwent folding in the Late Jurassic. In the Cretaceous and Early Paleogene, marine, continental and lagoonal sediments accumulated (up to 2-3 km), preserved within the Fergana and Tajik depressions. From the late Oligocene, an uplift of the region began, which sharply intensified from the Pliocene and formed the modern high-mountain relief and depressions filled with molasse up to 6 km. In the Pleistocene, new, rather intense fold-thrust deformations appeared, associated with the convergence of the Hindustan and Eurasian lithospheric plates. Thus, a vast mountainous country with high seismicity was formed.

The western (Kyzylkum) part of the Southern Tien Shan is the widest (up to 300-3500 km) and within its boundaries analogues of all zones of the central part of the Southern Tien Shan are developed. In the west, the Hercynides of the Southern Tien Shan are cut off by a meridional fault, along which the end junction of the structures of the Urals and the Southern Tien Shan occurs.

History of mineral resource development. The first evidence of the use of flint for making tools dates back to the Early Paleolithic (700-300 thousand years ago). In the area of ​​sites in Karatau, in the Central Tien Shan (valley of the On-Archa River), on Lake Issyk-Kul (Boz-Barmak), similarities of mine workings for the extraction of flints were discovered. Quarries of the Middle Paleolithic era are known near the sites of Khoja-Gor, Kapchagai, Togor, etc., and of the Late Paleolithic - in Kapchagai. 5-3 thousand years ago, in the late Neolithic era, the development of natural paints began: ocher, manganese peroxide, etc., which were used to make rock paintings in the Teke-Sekirik caves near the city of Naryn and Ak-Chunkur on the Sary-Jaz River. At the same time, clay began to be mined for making dishes.

In the 2nd millennium BC, during the Bronze and Copper Age, the development of ores of copper, lead, tin, zinc, as well as gold and silver began. Stone molds were used to produce metal castings. By this time there are traces of mining in the form of quarries, shallow mines and adits in settlement areas - Boz-Tepe, Chim-bay, Kapa-Kochkor on the Chu, Talas and Naryn rivers. At the beginning of the 1st millennium BC. A reduction in the production of tin and copper began, which is associated with the development of iron smelting, the ore of which was mined in the Talas Range, in the foothills of the Fergana Depression. Slave relations, which developed in Central Asia starting from the middle of the 1st millennium BC, did not slow down the development of mining, but there is very little data about this era. Feudalism, which replaced in the 1st millennium AD. slave system, due to the needs Agriculture, urban crafts and military needs contributed to an increase in mining. Historical chronicles of that time report iron mining in the Western Tien Shan, where iron ore slag dumps are known at many points in the Chirchik River basin, in the Kurama Mountains (Turganly, At-Kulak, Shah-Adam-Bulak, Kan-Tam, etc.) and the remains of ancient workings, as well as in the area of ​​Lake Issyk-Kul (Koysary), where in the fortification of the 7th-12th centuries. a blacksmith's tool made from local raw materials was found. During the same era, gold was mined (Kumaynak in the valley of the Angren River) and a lot of silver was mined in the western spurs of the Tien Shan (Kukhi-Sim mine). The lead extracted along the way was used to make mineral paints and household products. Copper ores were mined in the valley of the Chu River, in the regions of Aksu and Kucha (eastern Tien Shan), Ak-Tasha (Kyrgyz Range), Almalyk (Kuramin Range), where about 500 ancient workings with a volume of up to 20,000 m 3 are known. Mining developments were in the form of quarries and adits up to 30 m long, with side pockets Mushketov, D.I. Mushketov, N.G. Kassin, as well as V.N. Weber, who in 1913 gave the first information about the patterns of distribution of minerals. After the Great October Revolution, prominent Soviet geologists A.E. Fersman, D.V. Nalivkin, D.I. Shcherbakov led the work on the comprehensive development of the natural resources of the Tien Shan. A great contribution to the study of geology and mineral resources of the Tien Shan was made by V. A. Nikolaev, A. V. Peive, N. M. Sinitsyn, Kh. M. Abdullaev, A. E. Dovzhikov, G. S. Porshnyakov, V. N. Ognev, D. P. Rezvoy, V. G. Korolev, V. S. Burtman and others. About the modern mining industry of the Tien Shan, see art. about the republics: Kyrgyz CCP, Tajik CCP, Uzbek CCP.